Migration routes of ancient peoples. Factors affecting the migration of ancient people Map of migrations of ancient people in Eurasia

It is believed that a significant role in the evolution and distribution of all types of organisms on earth, including humans, was played by cyclic climate changes that occurred on our planet with an interval of tens of thousands of years. During periods of cooling, the habitats and the number of animals decreased, and during periods of warming, the number and diversity of living forms increased, and different species settled on habitable territories - from Africa to Asia and Europe. All this was confirmed by the analysis of the genomes of modern people. More and more new genetic data gradually clarify in more detail the picture of the settlement of people on different continents, the emergence of new human communities in different regions of the earth. The chronicle of man's conquest of our planet is gradually being restored by numerous genetic "evidence" (primarily by snips).

Examination of mitDNA and DNA contained in the Y-chromosome of a large number of people from different parts of the world led to the discovery of more than two hundred polymorphic marker regions, which were ultimately used for comparison. The totality of changes in markers reflected the "molecular history" of human migration. In the end, about two dozen "destinations" of the movement of migration waves were identified, which made it possible to build a genealogical tree of the human race. This was largely facilitated by the presence of unique groups of markers characteristic of certain geographically and historically isolated human populations (such as, for example, Iceland and Japan).

In general, modern ideas about the process of migration of the human population across the Earth, obtained as a result of the analysis of numerous snips in the Y-chromosome and mitDNA, are reflected in Fig. 39 on a colored insert.

Rice. 39. Ways and time of human migration on Earth, established by genetic markers. The arrows indicate the direction of migration, the different colors on the arrows indicate the times of migration (from the tab in the journal Nature, February 2001).

Different races and peoples arose after the separation of some relatively homogeneous ancestral population. In each of the groups of people, their own, very characteristic mutations independently occurred. A comparative analysis of the mitDNA of different populations of living people made it possible to conclude that in the Stone Age the ancestral population was divided into at least three groups, which gave rise to the African, Mongoloid and Caucasoid races. Studies of ethnogenetics indicate the absence of any genetic basis for dividing people into races. People belonging to different races have very small differences in their genomes. However, these small but very specific differences between individual mitDNA lineages may indicate a Mongoloid or Caucasoid origin.

According to ethnogenomics, about 60-130 thousand years ago, a person left Africa for Asia. The first settlers from Africa reached the Near East and about 60,000 years ago settled almost the entire Asian continent. 40-60 thousand years ago, man has already mastered the lands of Australia, America and Europe.

Based on the frequencies of ancient types of mutations in the nucleotide sequences of mitDNA and DNA of Y-chromosomes in different European human populations, it was possible to reconstruct several waves of human migrations in the Old World. It has been established that the first settlers from Asia appeared in Europe 40-50 thousand years ago in the Paleolithic era. The mitDNA lines that came to Europe with the first wave of migration now make up a significant part of the mitDNA of people inhabiting the territories from northwestern Europe to the Ural Mountains. MitDNA determined that 80% of Europeans had at least seven founding mothers and ten male ancestors. According to the Englishman Brian Sykes, given in his book "The Seven Daughters of Eve", all modern Europeans are descendants of the seven daughters of the "genetic Eve". The other 27 women became the progenitors of the rest of the world's population. And one of them must be your great-great-great-great-grandmother. The conclusion regarding the number of male ancestors of the European population was made by a large international team of scientists, including researchers from Russia (headed by Professor S. A. Limborska), as a result of a large-scale analysis of the Y chromosome. In the gene pool of most European men, only ten types of this sex chromosome were found. Thus, the bulk of Europeans (about 80%) have ancestors who moved to Europe from Central Asia or the Middle East as early as the Stone Age (i.e., about 40 thousand years ago).

Of course, the statement about the ten forefathers and seven foremothers of modern Europeans should not be taken literally. Firstly, there were certainly significantly more of them (but it is still difficult to estimate the total number). Secondly, they probably lived in different eras. Scientists only argue that among all the people who lived 40 thousand years ago, very few were likely to leave direct descendants who have survived to this day. Elementary statistics predict (and we have already discussed this) that the more generations pass, the less likely it is that a particular genus with a particular Y chromosome will survive. After all, over the course of many generations, in some families several boys were born, and in others - not a single one. The result of this was that one genus (and one variety of the Y chromosome) disappeared forever, and some other genus (quite by accident) produced more numerous offspring. Ultimately, a moment must inevitably come when all the original surnames, except for one, disappear in a particular population. A similar process can be observed, for example, in small isolated settlements, where all residents can bear the same surname.

What else did geneticists read in the Encyclopedia of Man? According to modern genetic data, at the beginning of the last ice age (about 24 thousand years ago), the descendants of ancient people who came to Europe from Asia found refuge in different parts of Europe. As a result, three isolated evolutionary branches were formed: the first on the territory of present-day Spain, the second on the territory of Ukraine, and the third on the Balkans. The most unique population in terms of genetic characteristics turned out to be the Basques. It is now believed that they are the only modern representatives of the oldest inhabitants of Europe - the Cro-Magnons. Interestingly, the conclusions of geneticists are also confirmed by some of the data of linguists, indicating the uniqueness of the Basque language. Later, about 16 thousand years ago, when the ice melted, the tribes settled throughout Europe: the Spanish tribes moved to the northeast, the Ukrainian ones to Eastern Europe, and the Balkan tribes remained in Central Europe. The second wave of migration of peoples to Europe corresponds to the advance of the Neolithic agricultural peoples from the places of origin of agriculture (the region of Mesopotamia) to the north and west of Europe. In this, the genetic assessment coincided with archaeological data: the process most likely occurred during the Neolithic, approximately 7-9 thousand years ago. It was these settlers who added the missing 20% ​​of the gene pool to European men (recall that 80% of the gene pool was obtained back in the Stone Age). Finally, another wave of migration, which corresponds to the expansion of Greek culture, occurred in the 1st millennium BC. Just before this, Moses, according to legend, led the Jewish people out of Egypt, and then led them through the desert for 40 years.

Scientists continue to study the details of migration processes that took place in the history of mankind. And gradually many more interesting facts were revealed that could only be established thanks to human DNA research. So, it was determined that the Polynesians most likely discovered America long before Columbus. Scientists came to this conclusion by comparing the DNA of the indigenous people of Samoa with the DNA of the Indian tribes of South America. In the genetics of people living six thousand kilometers from each other, a noticeable similarity was found. Probably about 500 AD, sailors from the South Pacific, moving on sailing boats, reached America. For some time, the Polynesians maintained trade relations with the indigenous population of the continent. This theory is supported by the following non-genetic fact: already around 1000 AD, sweet potato appeared in Polynesia, although this tuber was “officially” discovered only five centuries later, when Columbus visited America.

So where did people eventually come to America from? And the first answers to this question have already been received. According to DNA analysis of modern people, the ancestors of the First Americans are ancestors from Southern Siberia. Numerous traces left in the Y-chromosome have been found linking the population of America with their distant ancestors who lived in the Baikal region. The situation with female ancestors is more complicated. But one way or another, geneticists have already given a significant hint where to look for the origins of Americanism - on the territory of modern Russia. (Now the Americans have "good" reasons to claim our Siberia as their historical homeland!).

By examining mutations that have made their way into the DNA of the Y chromosome, scientists can estimate how distant (in a genetic sense) men from two ethnic groups are from our common ancestor. Some of the results obtained by this method turned out to be quite surprising. For example, it turned out that the Welsh and the British are genetically almost unrelated. (Perhaps this is the reason for the constant contradictions between them). At the same time, only the Welsh turned out to be the true descendants of the Britons (the ancient inhabitants of Britain), and the modern British turned out to be genetically closest to the inhabitants of the Netherlands, where they had previously presumably lived.

Conducted DNA studies have yielded many other interesting results. So, it has always been believed that travel is the prerogative of the male. However, as analysis of mitDNA and DNA of Y-chromosomes showed, women in those distant times migrated much more intensively than men. This fact can be explained, apparently, by the fact that for most diverse human communities it has always been characteristic for women to leave after marriage for their husband's house. Thus, the migrations of women associated with marriage probably left no less, and perhaps more noticeable trace in the human genome than, say, the exodus of the Jews from Egypt or all the military campaigns of Alexander the Great.

So, without any archaeological finds and historical sources, but only using the DNA texts contained in the nuclear and mitochondrial genome of modern people, geneticists manage to restore the history of the appearance of the first people on Earth, describe their migration routes, trace deep family ties between different races, peoples and nations. This leads to an important conclusion: nature has preserved in our DNA the only reliable hundred-year-old chronicle text .

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History with geography recorded in our genome (ethnogenomics)Genetic landscapes (genogeography)

It is impossible to determine from what time people began to travel. Most likely, the beginning of the history of travel should be traced back to the time when the process of separating a person from the animal world began to take place. In any case, there is no doubt that travel began when the foundations of human civilization were being laid.

What made our distant ancestors move across the boundless expanses of the Earth? The motives for traveling were as follows:

1. Primitive man was forced to move from one area to another looking for food(hunting, fishing, etc.). Despite the fact that animals also make such transitions (for example, herds of antelopes travel up to a thousand kilometers per season), nevertheless, such movements in space are characteristic of humans, since they are meaningful and purposeful.

2. With the advent of cattle breeding primitive began to make long journeys in search of pasture, laying paths and memorizing them. Often shepherds marked their way with special signs on the ground.

3. With the development of primitive agriculture, human interest in the territorial distribution of the plant world has expanded significantly. Man moved in search of better and more fertile lands and even sought to change the landscape of lands unsuitable for crops.

4. The development of crafts and trade made it necessary to create route schemes. The most noticeable features of the relief (mountain, rock, tall tree, etc.) served as landmarks. The revolutionary stage in the movement of people was production and use of watercraft to overcome the distance on the water. First, the flow of water was used, and then the force of the wind. The sun and stars served as landmarks on the sea.

5. With the development of intergroup communication, habitual paths between villages are created. Developing tribal communication. This communication took several forms:

a) intra-ethnic movement, i.e. movement within the territory occupied by a tribe or an alliance of tribes;

b) interethnic communication, i.e. moving outside the territory of the tribe and the loss of further communication with it;

c) the movement of the tribe itself or the union of tribes to another area, which is typical for peoples leading nomadic lifestyle.

This type of movement is called migration.

At the same time, ancient people tried to fix the routes of their movements. This marked the beginning of the first elements of cartography.

The first so-called "maps" were drawn on the ground, stones, tree fragments, animal skins and bones. These were primitive schemes with symbols with elements of drawings.

In the Mesolithic era (10 - 3 thousand years ago), the first trade routes begin to take shape.

Thus, in prehistoric times, the main motives for travel were due to objective reasons, the main of which was survival. But there was also an internal motivation for people's travels, namely, mutual visits of representatives of different tribes, and simple human curiosity to find out: "what is there beyond the horizon?"

In ancient times, the main motives for traveling were trade, educational and cognitive purposes, pilgrimage, treatment, visiting and participating in public events, conquest and colonization of new lands.

The first travels of antiquity (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Phoenicia, China). The process of human cognition of the surrounding world is to some extent connected with travel. The need to establish trade relations forced people to go to distant, unknown lands. The first information about travel and their role in the emergence of great cultures has come down to us in the form of myths, legends, tales, biblical texts and testimonies of ancient authors.

Traveling in the Ancient East was an integral part of the way of life of people. Since travel was fraught with dangers, the traveler was perceived as a person marked by God. Before the journey, obligatory rituals and sacrifices were performed. Similar examples can be found in the epic about Gilgamesh. The prophet can be attributed to biblical travelers Moses who led his people through the desert in search of better lands, But I who, in his ark, saved all living things from the Flood.

Another center of world civilization was Ancient Egypt. Nature itself contributed to navigation along the full-flowing Nile, which flows through the whole country from south to north. The Egyptians made a map of the part of the Nile they mastered, tracing its course for more than 2,000 km. Thanks to this, the Egyptians reached Nubia, located to the south of the country, and contacted the Mediterranean countries lying to the north and northeast (the islands of the Aegean Sea and the island of Crete).

From the central part of the country, the caravan route began, led to the Red Sea, and from there to the country of Punt. puntom(more precisely Puin) the ancient Egyptians called the country in East Africa, located on the coast of the Gulf of Aden. It is currently believed that this is the territory of modern Somalia and Yemen.

But the most famous and almost completely preserved description of the journey is the journey Sinuheta(in another transcription - Sinukhit), which took place around 2000 - 1960. BC. Sinuhet undertook a journey to the country of Kedem, i.e. to the East. This story was written by an unknown author. The Egyptians loved to read it and copied it from papyrus to papyrus.

Navigation has intensified contacts between countries. The necessary wood (for example, pine, cedar) was delivered from Syria and Lebanon. From the harbors of the Red Sea, ships were sent to the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, India, and there was also an intermediary trade with China. There was an active trade with the states of East Africa, from where gold, ivory, stone and earthenware were brought to the pharaohs.

And yet the first sailors of antiquity were Phoenicians. Their state was located in the eastern Mediterranean. The Phoenicians built large and durable ships, went beyond the Mediterranean basin into the ocean, and also sailed along the western coasts of Europe and Africa.

In the VI century. BC on the instructions of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II The Phoenicians undertook a journey around Africa. The Phoenicians sailed from the Erythrean Sea (Red Sea) and entered the South Sea (Indian Ocean). With the onset of autumn, they landed on the shore for the winter. They camped on the shore, sowed the land and waited for the harvest, then sailed on. So two years passed on the voyage, and on the third they circled Africa and sailed through the Pillars of Hercules and returned to Egypt. It is through the efforts of the Phoenicians Strait of Gibraltar opened, and it became possible to go to western shores Europe, the British Isles and the west coast of Africa. They laid down the cities of Kadir (Cadiz) and Tingis (Tangier) at the exit to the Atlantic Ocean.

Descendants of the ancient Phoenicians Carthaginians– continued development of new lands and spaces. The most famous journey of a military leader and naval commander Gennon. He explored the western coast of Africa up to modern Sierra Leone.

Travels and discoveries were made by all peoples of the world. Such centers of human civilization as China and India are no exception in this regard.

The civilization of Ancient China originates in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. in the Juane river basin. By the end of the II millennium BC. the Chinese settled in East Asia. Chinese travelers were well aware of the geography of China. The ancient Chinese sailed not only on their rivers, but also went out on their ships to the Pacific Ocean.

In addition to trading and pleasure ships in ancient China, there were powerful warships.

The most famous traveler of ancient China was Sima Qian. known three big trips Sima Qian, which took place in the period 125 - 120 BC. e. across the territory of China.

Sima Qian not only traveled, but also described his travels in detail. He is called "the father of Chinese historiography", in European literature "Chinese Herodotus". His " Historical notes”became a kind of standard for subsequent historians. His writings also provide geographical information about China's southwestern neighbors, such as Korea.

One of the first Chinese travelers was Zhang Qian who lived around the 2nd century. BC. and held a diplomatic post at the imperial court. Journey to the Huns. Traveled Mongolia, Central Asia.

While traveling, Zhang Qian constantly kept notes. He described Bukhara, the valley of the Ili River, the steppes of Kyrgyzstan, the territory of modern Kazakhstan, located north of the Syr Darya. Zhang Qian's journey had great economic importance. Chinese merchants rushed west along the route he had traveled. They penetrated not only into Central Asia and India, but also into the countries of Asia Minor and Palestine.

Fa Xian's travels. Buddhist monk, traveled around Asia for 15 years. He explored Northwestern China, the Gobi Desert, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Northern India. In India, Fa Xiang visited many cities, collected legends and tales about Buddha. There he lived for several years. He returned to China by sea through the islands of Ceylon and Java. He published the "Description of Buddhist States", which describes more than 30 states, provides valuable geographical and ethnographic information. In addition, Fa Xiang gives an estimate of distances and the exact position of objects.

The significance of China in the socio-cultural space of that time was enormous. In the chronicle of 166 BC. contains information about the visit of Chinese merchants to the Roman Empire and their meeting with Emperor Marcus Aurelius Anthony. Chinese merchants paved the way through Central Asia, the Middle East, Palestine to Ancient Rome, which gave rise to " Great Silk Road". But China's closest trading partners were the peoples who inhabited the Indian subcontinent.

Thus, in all the major civilizations of antiquity, travel and campaigns were actively made for various purposes. Mankind developed and mastered new territories. Along with this, the way of life, traditions changed, the interpenetration of cultures took place.

6. Travels of the Ancient World (Carthage, Ancient Greece, Macedonia, etc.) The era of antiquity includes several periods: the period of the archaic (Crete-Mycenaean culture); the period of the beginning of the development of the civilization of Ancient Greece; Hellenistic period (the heyday and decline of the civilization of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome). The very word "antiquity" in Latin means "antiquity", "old times".

The roots of European civilization go back to the distant legendary times of the Cretan culture, or, as it is also called, the Minoan (after the name of the Cretan king Minos). Myths and tales about this land are inspired by romance and lyricism. Suffice it to recall the labyrinth of the Minotaur, the thread of Ariadne, the exploits of Theseus, the son of the Athenian king Aegeus, in whose honor the Aegean Sea is named, Medea, Jason, the Argonauts, the heroes of Homer's Iliad, as soon as something near and dear will blow. All generations of Europeans grew up on this material and live on it.

From the 12th century BC. we can talk about the origin of the civilization of Ancient Greece. The ancient Greeks freely sailed the Aegean to the shores of Asia Minor and back, although these journeys were not without danger and adventure. The story of the wanderings of the legendary Odysseus does not need comments, since Homer's poems have been translated into all languages.

In ancient Greece, travel reached its greatest upsurge in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. The same period is the heyday of philosophy, art, mathematics, astronomy, cosmology and other sciences. The centers of civilization were the cities of Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus and Colophon. But the center of attraction was Athens.

With the aim of understanding the world, sages, natural philosophers and poets traveled to all corners of the world. Almost all major ancient Greek philosophers carried out distant wanderings. sage and philosopher Thales of Miletus studied in Egypt for more than twenty years. A philosopher and mathematician visited the Nile Valley to gain knowledge Pythagoras, legislator Solon. Philosopher Plato, having made a long journey, upon returning home he founded a philosophical school.

But not only knowledge attracted travelers to these countries. They were attracted by the grandiose ancient monuments of architecture.

One of the first scientific travelers was Herodotus, who, in the words of Cicero, is the "father of history." Herodotus traveled for 10 years (from 455 to 445 BC), and set out all his observations in 9 books. He traveled all over Greece and Asia Minor, then sailed to the Phoenician city of Tire. Most of all, Herodotus was attracted by the East and its rich cultural heritage. Herodotus traveled around Libya, visited Babylon, but he was especially struck by Egypt, where he stayed for three months. Returning to Greece, Herodotus shared his knowledge with his compatriots. This was his first trip..

The second journey of Herodotus passed through Asia Minor, from where he arrived by ship to the Northern Black Sea region, through the Helespont to the Milesian colony of Olbia at the mouth of the Dnieper-Bug estuary. There he met with the nomadic tribes of the Scythians, observed their customs, rituals, studied their social system.

Own third voyage Herodotus dedicated to the study of the Balkan Peninsula. He traveled around the Peloponnese, the islands of the Aegean Sea (Delos, Pharos, Zakif and others), then traveled through southern Italy and the north of the Balkan Peninsula.

Only fragments of his writings have come down to us, but the main thing is that Herodotus belongs glory of the first Greek tourist, since, unlike his predecessors, he traveled not for the sake of achieving some other goals, but for the sake of the journey itself, i.e. for the sake of pleasure, the satisfaction of one's own inquisitiveness and curiosity.

During this era, travel was made mainly for economic, political and military purposes. One example of travel for economic purposes was the journey of the Greek merchant Pytheas. In 325 BC Pytheas sailed on one ship from his native city of Messalia (now Marseille). He sailed through Gibraltar and, rounding the Iberian Peninsula, entered the Bay of Biscay. Then he sailed along the coast of the country of the Celts and reached the English Channel. There he landed on the island of Albion, which means "White", named because of the frequent fogs. On this island, Pytheas learned from the inhabitants that to the north of them lies the land of "Thule", which in translation from the local dialect means "edge", "limit".

Pytheas rounded the British Peninsula from the west, and through the North Strait between Britain and Ireland entered the Atlantic Ocean. Pytheas tried to reach the land of "Thule" (now the island of Iceland). He sailed through the Orkney and Shetland Islands and, reaching the Ferry Islands, went further, to 61 ° north latitude. None of the ancient Greeks and even the Romans did not go so far to the north.

Greece is the birthplace of sports tourism. The Olympic Games were held every four years and began on the first new moon after the summer solstice. Special envoys of feora during the Games proclaimed the sacred peace.

The venue for the Games was Olympia. All those going to Olympia were recognized as guests of Zeus. Among them there were also guests of honor, who were recognized as deputies of cities and feora. As a rule, they were stirred and fed at the expense of the host. The stadium could hold up to forty thousand people, but only men were allowed there. On the occasion of the Olympics, there was always a big fair. Tourists visited the ancient temples, listened to the guide telling various legends. The Olympics lasted 5 days.

In addition to the Olympics, there were other games that were of a pan-Greek character: Isthmian that took place on the Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean held in the Nemean Valley of Argolis, near the Temple of Zeus, also once every two years; Pythian, held, like the Olympic, every four years in Chris (Phokis).

Considering the travels of the Hellenistic era, it should be noted military campaigns of Alexander the Great lasting for 10 years.

In 330 BC the troops of Alexander the Great, having defeated the Persian kingdom, reached southern Afghanistan. Then, through modern Kandahar and Ghazni, they poisoned themselves in Kabel. From there, having passed the Khavak pass (3,548 m) in the Hindu Kush mountain system, we arrived in Northern Afghanistan. After that, the Macedonian king made his campaign to the Syr Darya and reached modern Khujand (until 1991 - the city of Leninabad). Then the army turned south and invaded the Punjab, where, due to the discontent of the soldiers, heat and illness, Alexander was forced to go back, during which he was overtaken by death.

Without going into the military details of this campaign, we can safely say that it ended for the Greeks, and then for the Romans, by opening the way to India. Thanks to this campaign, the Greeks and Macedonians got acquainted with little-known, or even completely unknown before, peoples, their culture, way of life, and traditions. Personally, Alexander the Great was interested in the study of Asia. Alexander's entourage included not only warriors, but also outstanding scientists and artists. In their works, they described in detail everything they saw, heard and studied during this campaign.

There has been a change in outlook. eurocentrism.

This hike was Museum studies started. Alexander, after the victory over the Persians, sent money to his teacher Aristotle. With this money, Aristotle founded a natural science museum. Aristotle asked his royal disciple to send him samples of unknown plants and skins or stuffed animals of unusual animals, which was done at the behest of Alexander.

Features of intrastate travel in the Roman Empire. Types of "tourist" activities that originated in the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek culture enriched mankind with knowledge about the world around us, elevating travel to the rank of a mass phenomenon, but we can talk about the initial stages of the tourism industry from the era of Ancient Rome.

of the highest flourishing The Roman Empire reached in the I - II centuries. ad. Travel could be carried out thanks to the presence of excellent roads. In ancient Greece, the lack of convenient roads was an obstacle to overland travel. Water travel.

The size of the Roman Empire and the problems of its management were the reason for the creation dense network of roads. Basically, the Romans developed the road system based on military needs. Roman roads were built according to all the rules of engineering.

When laying the road, any obstacles were overcome. Bridges and viaducts were built to overcome water barriers. In some places, these structures have not only survived to this day, but are even still in use.

There were special road maps with the designation of stations where one could stop for the night. The maps indicated the distance between stations. On the main roads, postal stations were located at a distance of 6 to 15 miles from each other. They were an integral part of the state postal service.

Created in ancient Rome network of state hotels in order to pay for the construction of roads. These hotels were built every 15 miles. There were two types of hotels. The hotels that were intended for the patricians were called mansion. For the plebeians, there were worse hotels, mostly private, which were called stabularia. These were ordinary inns where one could eat and rest without amenities, feed or change horses, repair a wagon, etc. In massions, there are elements of tourist service and maintenance (laundries, rooms for recreation and entertainment, taverns, etc.).

In ancient Rome, there were already guidebooks, which not only indicated this or that route, but also described the sights encountered along the way, marked hotels and gave prices.

The Romans, even more than the Greeks, valued healing mineral springs. The objects of foreign tourism include the well-known to this day resorts on the Rhine - Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden.

With the advent of Christianity, a new impetus is given pilgrimage tourism. Pilgrimage was common in ancient Greece. Especially frequented was the famous temple of Apollo at Delphi, where the Pythia, "chosen by God", was engaged in predictions.

Famous travelers of ancient Rome can be called Polybius(200 - 120 BC), wrote "World History".

The first country specialist can be called Strabo(64 - 23 BC). Strabo traveled all his life. He traveled around Asia Minor, visited the Taurus Mountains (Crimea) and at the foot of the Caucasus Mountains, visited the Cyclades and bypassed the Balkan Peninsula, thoroughly studied all the memorable places on the Apennine Peninsula, as well as Egypt.

After completing his travels, Strabo wrote the main work of his life - “ Geography- in 17 books. This work is the result of the geographical knowledge of antiquity.

Travelers in ancient Rome were emperors(Trajan, Adrian, Marcus Aurelius), commanders and scientists.

Thus, thanks to the travelers of antiquity, new lands and peoples were discovered, rich geographical material was accumulated, which contributed to further travels and discoveries.

The nature of travel during this period was most often spontaneous and forced. Types of travel can be classified according to the methods of movement: pedestrian, water transport, animals.

Travel motives: educational, entertaining, health-improving, trade, research, conquest, sea expeditions.

Causes and significance of roads and trade routes in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Ways of communication have existed for as long as humanity has existed. The most ancient transport arteries were rivers developed by man in the Mesolithic era. Later, in the Neolithic (VIII-V millennium BC), there were land routes along which there was an exchange of valuable raw materials (flint, obsidian, lapis lazuli, malachite, sea shells, ivory) between tribes at distances sometimes up to many hundreds of kilometers. ). These were trails tied to natural terrain - river valleys, mountain passes; there are no material traces left of them, but these ancient paths are reconstructed on the basis of archaeological finds from the settlements located along them. The construction of roads begins with the emergence of the state. The oldest road discovered in Egypt has come down to us; it was laid to the site of the construction of the pyramid of Pharaoh Sakhura (III millennium BC)

The ancient states of the period of antiquity paid attention to the construction of roads and their safety. The duty of each of the numerous states of ancient Greece was the construction of roads. Roads of standard width (approx. 3 m) were laid on stony soil, carving entire sections in the rocks. Roads were considered as inviolable as temples. In the "History" of Herodotus, the royal road, laid by the Persian rulers in the 6th century, is described. BC. from the city of Sardis in western Asia Minor to Susa in southwestern Iran. Its length was approx. 2400 km. At regular intervals, stations with inns were built, and at strategic points, such as river crossings, there were military posts and fortified gates.

In the Northern Black Sea region, on the territory of modern Russia and Ukraine, there were numerous ancient Greek cities. Their inhabitants owned the technology of road construction, which can be judged by the paved city streets discovered by archaeologists. The streets were paved with stone slabs laid dry without mortar, lanes - with rubble and shards of broken vessels. Roman roads became the highest achievement in the field of transport systems of antiquity. The Roman state paid great attention to the construction of roads, which played an important military and civil role in the functioning of the vast empire. The most ancient Appian Way was built in the 4th century BC. BC, the map of ancient Rome shows how numerous roads diverge from the center of the city, connecting it with the most remote provinces. The Romans became the inventors of concrete and widely used it in road construction. The collapse of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD under the blows of barbarian tribes and the onset of the Middle Ages meant the loss of many achievements of civilization, including the destruction of the road network. In medieval ancient Russian state The most important communication routes were the rivers, along which navigation was carried out from spring to autumn, and in winter they laid a sleigh route. It was along the rivers that the most important trade routes passed: along the Dnieper and Volkhov - “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, i.e. from Scandinavia to the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople. When moving from the basin of one river to another, it was necessary to overcome land sections - portages (the name comes from the fact that the boats had to be dragged over dry land, on lining skating rinks). In the places of portages, cities arose - Smolensk, Volokolamsk, Vyshny Volochok, and smaller trade and craft settlements.

The princely administration took care of the state of land roads, one of its tasks was to build gates in marshy places. In general, there were few roads in ancient Russia, they were unpaved and poorly equipped. Better was the case with the city streets. In wooded lands they were paved

The Great Volga Route connected medieval Russia, Scandinavia and Northern Europe with the Caspian Sea and the countries of the East.

In the early Middle Ages, regular road communication existed thanks to the Roman roads. From the 4th century they begin to be restored, and they acquire a "second life". In Central Europe, the first national road was built between Mainz and Koblenz. The whole of Central Europe was crossed by a dirt road - the Vindobona Arrow - from the Baltic States to Vindobona (Vienna). Amber was delivered along it. The best roads in the Byzantine Empire were in the Balkans.

One of the most important elements of the country's development is trade. It is usually divided into external and internal. In the Middle Ages, both types of trade were often mixed. This was due to the time the goods were in transit. Bought or made in your hometown, the goods could be sold all the way. Two of the three significant trade routes passed through the territory of Kievan Rus. It was due to them that the state gained fame and authority in the world. Over time, the paths changed, but the main directions remained the same.

Many scientists consider the Volga as the earliest trade route. Although many do not agree with it. Nevertheless, its significance in the history of the formation of Russia is great. “From the Varangians to the Bulgars” - this name is found in the annals. It connected the states of Scandinavia and Khazaria. From there, the goods dispersed further east. The path took shape early, in 780 AD. Control over this path was essential. Russia becomes a trading intermediary between Europe and the East. However, over time, the path loses its meaning. This is due to the establishment of control over the trade route leading to the Black Sea. It was more profitable for the state that merchants use it. Svyatoslav's military campaigns against Khazaria strengthened the significance of the Black Sea route. The Crusades further reduced its importance. Trading through this path becomes unprofitable.

The path connecting the countries of Scandinavia and Byzantium is becoming increasingly important. In The Tale of Bygone Years, he was called "from the Varangians to the Greeks" or "Eastern Way". Along large rivers, through many heavy portages, he passed through the entire territory of Russia. Iron, furs, amber, flax were delivered to the south along it. Luxury goods and gold went north. The state enriched itself at the expense of trade duties levied on passing merchants. In some European countries there are references to "Russian silk". It was never made on the territory of Russia, however, control was established over its sale to European countries, which brought a significant income. With the beginning of the feudal fragmentation of Russia, the value of the path falls. The predatory raids of the Varangians also did not contribute to the development of trade. The capture of Byzantium by the crusaders in 1204 severely disrupted trade. Finally, the path ceases to exist after the capture of the Lower and Middle Dnieper by the Golden Horde.

In any case, these trade routes allowed the formation of the state. Control over the movement of goods allowed the country to play a significant role in world politics.

The presence of trade routes for the development of medieval states was very important. This contributed not only to obtaining the necessary goods and replenishing the budget of the trading states, but also to the spread of new technologies, cultural achievements and religious ideas. Trade routes and their numerous branches in antiquity and the Middle Ages were not only trade routes, but also a cultural and information network connecting distant peoples and states that received information about each other's material and spiritual culture through these communication channels. Merchant caravans, embassies, communities of settlers, artels of free artisans, pilgrims, missionaries, wandering actors moved along them. The authorities of the states through whose possessions trade routes ran usually made every effort to ensure their safety.

In Eastern Europe, the Great Volga Route is considered the oldest, some sections of which began to function as early as the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages. However, as a highway connecting Northern Europe and Central Asia with Iran, the Volga route took shape only in the 8th century AD. In fact, no one had complete control over him. The key - the Lower Volga section of the route was under the rule of the Khazar Khaganate, a significant role in the trade of which was played by Jewish merchants "rahdonites". This allowed the Khazar authorities to receive the highest profits. The Middle Volga section was controlled by the Volga Bulgaria. The Upper Volga flowed through the Slavic lands, which allowed them to trade with eastern merchants. However, the Normans (Varangians/Vikings) were the strongest group operating on the northern section of the route. The northern section ran from the upper reaches of the Volga along the lanes and the Lovat River, Lake Ilmen, the Volkhov and Neva Rivers - to the Baltic Sea.

Globally, the Volga trade route was a large offshoot of the Great Silk Road, connecting the Far East with Europe. The Great Silk Road passed through Central and Central Asia, Iran (south of the Caspian and Black Seas), the territory of modern Arab countries and Turkey (Western and Minor Asia), and then to the states of the Mediterranean. Sometimes most of the Silk Road was controlled by one state, such as the Turkic Khaganate in the 6th century or the Mongol Empire in the 13th century.

The value of the Volga Route usually increased during the period of cessation of operation (or a significant decrease in trade) of the West Asian section of the Silk Road, for example, during the period of the Arab conquests of the 7th-8th centuries, or the Seljuk conquests of the 11th century. As a result, in the 8th century, the Volga and Dnieper routes ("from the Varangians to the Greeks" became more important and significantly competed with the route through Western Asia. The greatest damage to trade along the Great Silk Road was caused by the Seljuk (Oghuz) conquests of the 11th century in Central and Western Asia. In During this period, the Silk Road did not function for several decades.

Trade reached a very significant scale during the existence of the Mongol Empire and subsequent Mongol states (the Golden Horde, the Yuan Empire, the powers of the Iranian Mongols Hulaguids, the Chagatai ulus). Along with the complete practically safe functioning of the classical (southern) route of the Silk Road (south of the Black and Caspian Seas, through Iran, and Byzantium (Constantinople) or Syria), a significant part of the flow of goods went through the northern (Eastern European) branch of the Silk Road through the territory of the Golden Horde (Middle Asia - Lower Volga - Don - Crimea - Black Sea - Constantinople - Mediterranean Sea). In the Golden Horde period of the XIII-XIV centuries, the Volga route, reconnecting with the Silk Road, acquired a very important significance and a large flow of goods. Once again, Russian lands and principalities were included in international trade, which became an important factor in the need for the unification of Russia.

A new period in trade began in the second half - the end of the XIV century, when, due to the collapse of the Mongol states (the Hulaguid empire, Golden Horde) and the formation of the empire of Tamerlane again sharply reduced trade along the Silk and Volga routes. In a truncated form, the Silk Road functioned until the middle of the 15th century, until in 1453 the Ottoman Empire blocked its central part for Europeans. It was the need to trade with the East and the impossibility of doing it through the Ottoman Empire that fueled the search for sea routes to India and China - that is, the Great geographical discoveries second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries...

XP. 2.7.50.3. Ways of migrations of primitive people.

Alexander Sergeevich Suvorov ("Alexander Suvory").

CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF HUMANITY DEVELOPMENT.

Experience in reconstructing the sequence of historical events in time and space in correlation with solar activity.

Book two. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITY BEFORE OUR ERA.

Part 7. The era of mythical civilizations.

Chapter 50.3. Ways of migrations of primitive people.

Illustration from the open Internet.

Population density by modern people of the Oikoumene (inhabited world) of the "Old World". Not the number of population, but the number of people per 1 sq. km. km. square!
(Thanks to the authors of this wonderful map - A.S.).

The whole world. Migrations of primitive people. Modern humanity. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis is a race of mankind of classical intelligent Neanderthals. Homo sapiens sapiens are the classical Cro-Magnon race of humanity. Classical primitive society. Socio-economic formation. modern civilization. Rasogenesis. World proto-tower conceptual language "Turit". Eurasian language family. The penetration of Asian Mongoloids into America. Settling of Oceania and Australia by the Australoid Sea Peoples. Wide spread of new types of tools and weapons. Three world ways of human migrations - Austric, Boreal and African (reverse). 49,000 BC

The “antediluvian” position of the North and South Poles, the relatively low level of the world ocean (60-61 m below the current level), a different location of the continents and seas in climatic and natural zones, powerful glaciation of the northern territory of the future Canada, as well as the existence of Berengia or continuous land - the shelf between northeast Asia and North America, as well as the vast shelf lands of Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda in Southeast Asia, have a decisive influence on the antediluvian world of Oikumene (inhabited world) of this time (50,000-49,000 BC .e.).

The development of the world (hypothetical, "proto-tower") conceptual proto-language "Turit". The universal conceptual language of communication "Turit" is the basis of all currently existing language families: Australian, Papuan, Ainu, Nivkh, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo, Khoisan (Bushman-Hottentot), Austrian (Austrian), Chukchi-Kamchatka and the huge Eurasian language families (40,000-20,000 BC).

Formation of three main ways of migration and settlement of Homo sapiens sapiens - neoanthrope, classical Cro-Magnon man, modern man, carrier of the future Aurignacian or Aurignacian archaeological culture (its variants) on the continents of the Earth:

Austric, Boreal and African (back to Africa).

The Austrian path leads Homo sapiens sapiens along the coast of the Indian Ocean through the future India and Southeast Asia, with a division of the path to Oceania and Australia, and along the Pacific coast of East Asia through Kamchatka and the Aleutian Islands to America. The beginning of the settlement of the territory of island Oceania and Australia by the "peoples of the sea" - people of a modern look and appearance with Australoid racial characteristics.

The boreal path leads Homo sapiens sapiens to the polar regions of Europe through the Middle East, Asia Minor, the Caucasus and the Balkans, through the Black Sea and Ciscaucasia to the European territory of the future Russia and through Central Asia, the South Urals and Altai to Eastern Siberia, Primorye and Berengia. The beginning of the settlement of the territory of North America through Berengia by primitive people Homo sapiens sapiens of the modern species with Mongoloid racial characteristics.

The Return African Route leads Homo sapiens sapiens to the settlement of Africa: the Sahara, Northeast Africa, the coast of the African Mediterranean and nearby islands. Settlement North Africa, Mediterranean and nearby islands The Negroid race of people of modern appearance and appearance.

The total (estimated) population of the Earth in given time(50,000-49,000 BC) is 25,000,000 people. At the same time, the "phenomenological theory of the growth of the Earth's population" and the methodology for calculating the population of the Earth in the past and future are so complex and interesting that they require explanation in a separate chapter of the "Chronology".

The indicated estimated number of primitive people of a given time (50,000-49,000 BC) includes not only representatives of actually existing humanity, races and peoples of reasonable classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, but also the probable estimated number of ancient archanthropes, pithecanthropes and other relic hominids .

Many of them occupy the most "deaf", "secret", hidden, secret, isolated and remote corners of the Oikumene (inhabited world), are located on the land shelves of the oceans and seas, live on islands and continents, the fate of which is predetermined by future global catastrophes (the legendary Arctida-Hyperborea, Berengia, Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda, Atlantis).

Therefore, in the calculation of the actual number of humanity (humanities) and the races of intelligent classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons of a given time (49,000 BC), it is naturally and inevitably possible (possibly, probably) to include a much smaller number of primitive people - carriers of open, definite and known to science archaeological cultures.

So, for example, in Africa, about 1000 different sites of primitive people of the period 51,000-50,000 BC are known, traces and artifacts of which provide evidence of the one-time life of large communities of people (blood relatives, communities, clans, phratries) numbering up to 100 people. Thus, archaeologists believe that at least 100,000 people of the modern species actually existed and lived in Africa at the indicated time.

Such a method of calculating the size of the primitive population is purely material, realistic, factual, real, but naturally and inevitably does not take into account the number of primitive people who, for various reasons, did not leave material traces of their existence.

However, their presence and presence give out other information traces and material carriers of information - the movement in time and space of technologies for the production of typical tools and weapons, traditions of life and cultural behavior, the genetic heredity of descendants.

At all times in history, the number of living inhabitants on Earth obeys one simple law - there are as many of them as a particular habitat can “feed”.

In a peaceful, abundant, prosperous, conflict-free and safe time the number of living beings is not limited by anything other than the productive possibilities of their habitats. At the same time, only predators (but not people) can influence the total number of objects of their hunting, never destroying everyone and everything.

When a “demographic explosion” occurs and the number of certain living beings exceeds the productive possibilities of their habitat, or when, due to catastrophic climatic or natural phenomena, the “feeding territory” ceases to provide the existence of a large number of living beings, then the instinctive struggle of each and every one for survival begins. One form of such a struggle for survival is mass migration to new feeding areas.

Primitive people of this time (50,000-49,000 BC) live in favorable climatic and natural conditions of the antediluvian position of the poles and the level of the world ocean (60-61 m below the present level), in the conditions of the ongoing stage of the ancient Upper Pleistocene (134 000-39,000 BC), under the conditions of the development of the Middle Valdai (Karukyulas) interglacial period lasting 10,000 years (50,000-40,000 BC) and the continuation of the warming stage “Wurm II Murshofd (Perigor VII) interglacial” ( 51,000-46,500 BC).

Therefore, the archaeological traces and artifacts of the stone industry of the Mousterian culture, which are widely distributed throughout the Oikumene (inhabited world), convincingly inform us and testify to the probable "demographic explosion" and mass migrations of primitive people, among which representatives of Homo sapiens sapiens, the race of intelligent classical Cro-Magnons, are of key importance. .

According to the generally accepted definition, a “population explosion” is a sharp increase in the number as a result of a decrease in mortality with a high birth rate.

Naturally and naturally, in prosperous regions with abundant life support resources, as a rule, the birth rate is low, and the life span of living beings is longer. Everyone naturally wants to live longer without worries and hassles ...

In unfavorable regions with scarce life support resources, a high birth rate and the number of living beings increase the likelihood of survival of the strongest and fittest, increase the likelihood of conservation and development of the species and genus. In addition, we must not forget that for almost the entire period of the Stone Age, natural, sacrificial or ritual cannibalism was one of the ways to ensure the survival of people and animals in times of famine...

The author not just in the previous chapters of the "Chronology" studied in detail the actual, real, real, as well as possible and probable ways of survival of primitive people in various climatic and natural zones.

The fact is that even today, the placement of modern people in habitats on Earth is extremely uneven. Human settlements (houses, villages, towns, villages, cities) are almost everywhere on Earth, even in Antarctica and on the ice field of the North Pole. However, the majority of the modern population of the Earth lives in relatively small areas.

The illustration at the beginning of this chapter shows the population densities and habitats of modern people in the ecumene (inhabited world)—Africa, Europe, Asia, Oceania, Australia, and New Zealand (excluding the Americas) as of 1994.

Based on the factors of normal natural habitat in the relevant climatic, natural (resource) and ecological conditions, on the location of traces of the habitation of primitive people, on the location of their sites, settlements and artifacts created by them, it can be confidently stated that the population density indicated on the illustration map and habitat corresponds to the ways of settlement or migration of primitive people of the modern species of this and subsequent times (50,000-10,000 BC).

The majority of the human population of the Earth at all times lived and lives in very limited territories. Today, about 30% of the world's population is concentrated in South and Southeast Asia (India, Pakistan, Indonesia), 25% - in East Asia (China, Japan). Many people live in Europe and eastern North America.

Population density in human habitats also fluctuates dramatically. So, for example, in the middle part of the Gangetic Valley (India), the population density is three times higher than the average in the country (270 people per 1 sq. km.).

In Africa, the most densely populated territory is Nigeria (130 people per 1 sq. Km.). In Europe, the average population density is about 32 people per 1 sq. km. km. In Australia, per 1 sq. km. the territory accounts for about three people, and in Central Asia (Mongolia) - 1-2 people per 1 sq. km. km.

Very large areas of the Earth initially and still are practically not inhabited by humans.

A frightening amount of the modern population of the Earth - 6,400,000,000 people - can be accommodated in an area of ​​​​6400 square meters. km - this is the area of ​​\u200b\u200bLake Issyk-Kul (Kyrgyzstan) or on the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe three Lakes of Geneva (Switzerland), or on the territory of the Spanish Canary Islands (7200 sq. km). At the same time, the rest of the territory of the Earth would be free from people.

Therefore, it is not the population of the Earth that should be “scared”, but their location, population density, crowding in places of residence (feeding).

An analysis of the history and demography of mankind makes it possible to identify certain patterns of population growth, distribution, resettlement and migration of people. So, for example, naturally and naturally, the maximum population growth is observed in the so-called "developing countries" or "developing cultures". At the same time, population growth is naturally low in the so-called "developed countries" or "developed cultures".

Rapid population growth or "population explosion" causes an inevitable and natural age imbalance - there are more children, adolescents and the elderly, that is, the disabled population. Children under the age of 15 are about 50%, and the elderly - from 10 to 15%.

At the same time, the population density in the “feeding territories” increases, the population of camps and settlements increases, which inevitably gives rise not only to cohesion and militancy in times of danger, but also to stress, quarrels, conflicts, rivalry and competition in “peacetime”.

Characteristic and natural is relatively high level life in places of permanent or predominant residence of people, in places of parking-settlements. Here, as a rule, technical, technological, cultural and religious centers are formed. At the same time, the “high standard of living” in the settlements contrasts sharply with the low (poor, half-starved, vagrant, beggarly) standard of living in the “periphery”.

That is why at all times in the history of mankind (mankinds) the inhabitants of the "cultural, civilized centers" inevitably, naturally and naturally were at enmity and are at enmity with the inhabitants of the "wild, barbaric outskirts" (and vice versa).

In the case of consanguineous human associations (families, communities, clans, clans, tribes and peoples), there are only two ways to avoid "fratricidal enmity" - the development and settlement of unoccupied (uninhabited) fodder territories or the conquest and enslavement of "foreign" territories (occupied by strangers, unrelated people).

That is why, in the conditions of "demographic explosions", global catastrophes, climatic and natural changes, as well as the depletion of the resources of "forage territories", mass migrations of key animals and primitive people became inevitable, natural and logical.

In addition, one of the reasons for the movements and settlements of primitive people in the Oikumene (inhabited world) is the exploratory instinct - the search for the "promised land", "paradise", "Garden of Eden", "places of abundant game", "happy place", where life and habitation is a carefree, satiated, safe, fun and joyful pastime.

As a rule, these "heavenly places" are dreamed of by "old and young" - infirm old people and impatient teenagers. Some want a well-deserved rest, others want carefree, idle fun. At the same time, both of them need maintenance and feeding ...

The author is convinced that at this time (50,000-49,000 BC) primitive people of the appropriate age dream of happiness in the same way as modern "teenagers" and "mature people", for example, in today's Ukraine ...

Therefore, based on the actual, real, real and natural settlement of people in the Oikumene (see map-illustration), it is possible to determine the places and territories of the preferred or predominant habitat of primitive people, the direction of their migration flows and routes. By the way, the maps of genetic markers, nodes and clusters exactly correspond to maps of the population density of the Earth.

Thus, the population of the Oikoumene is not as terrible as the uneven number (density) of people in places of permanent or compact habitation (living, feeding). The earth as a whole can feed and "endure" the simultaneous existence of tens of billions of animals and people.

Population growth inevitably and naturally leads to a decrease in food resources, so the "feeding capacity" of the indigenous territories inhabited by primitive people is continuously declining. In the climatic and natural conditions of the African Sahara and Africa as a whole, the “population explosion” inevitably leads to mass starvation, epidemics, epizootics, and migrations.

If at present (with developed agriculture and production) every fifth inhabitant of the planet is starving or malnourished, then at this time (50,000-49,000 BC), the number of starving or malnourished primitive people is probably also large.

True, the level of consumption of the vital goods of primitive people is incommensurably different than in our time. In addition, the number of key animals and plants that ensure the life and activity of primitive people of a given time (50,000-49,000 BC) is also disproportionately large.

Thus, it is not the degradation of food areas and ecosystems, but the increasing population density that may be the reasons for the migrations of animals and primitive people.

An instinctive desire to develop and discover new territories, the search for the "promised land", the desire to separate, isolate, create one's own family, one's own community, one's clan or people, the dream of finding "one's own place in life" and creating everything new "one's own" (different from boring traditions), as well as conflicts, rivalry and competition - these are the main reasons for the "heroic" migrations and travels of people of all times and peoples.

The author did not just mention the word-concept of "travel" in relation to humanity (humanities) of this time (50,000-49,000 BC). Migration is not the movement of animals and people only in one or one direction, it is, as a rule, movement "there" and return "back" - to their homeland.

That is why in the places and territories that were once abandoned by people occupied and settled by new migrants, either individual people or a mass of descendants of former indigenous people suddenly appear. They return from migration-travels to their native places, bringing with them a lot of useful, interesting, instructive or harmful - their life experience, moods, impressions, stories, information, knowledge, tools, things, objects, mores, customs, etc. .

In addition, the “travels” of primitive people can be understood as: hunting and research trips; hikes for mineral and stone raw materials; moving to places of collective meetings-events, for example, to places of joint seasonal mass driven hunting, gathering of edible plants, berries and nuts, transitions to places of ritual meetings, initiations, competitions, festivities, weddings, exchange of "brides" and "grooms" and etc.

In general, "movement" in this case is:

Displacement, shift, movement, migration, movement, permutation, regrouping, transfer, transportation, transition, relocation, transfer, travel;

Shifting, moving, telekinesis, epeirophoresis, relocation, rolling, transshipment, descent, relocation, heliotaxis, transfer;

Sock, rollback, convection, shift, rollback, relocation, moving away, dragging, pulling, transferring, transportation, jumping off, sweeping away;

Carrying, transporting, pulling, dragging, moving, crawling, transshipment, anaphoresis, movement, movement, throwing, running across;

Translation, carrying, flow, runoff, runoff, advection, overload, current, advancement, shifting, throwing, drifting, moving.

At the same time, movement-journey is a “walking along the path”, a trip or walking to some places, countries, usually for acquaintance, research or recreation (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. - M., 1999.). Movement-travel, as a rule, is temporary or transit ("tourist", "guest"), not affecting the fundamental interests and rights of local residents of certain territories.

Migration movements are always purposeful or forced trips that have special causal motives. Migration movements, as a rule, affect the fundamental interests of local residents of certain territories and are inevitably considered by them as an invasion, aggression and violation of established or generally recognized borders.

At the same time, “violation of the boundaries of the habitat” is an instinctive innate feeling based on the instinct of self-preservation, protection and security of a certain territory of residence, feeding or extraction of resources necessary for life.

Almost all animals and people instinctively feel some space around them as "their territory", "their place", "their home". They limit their habitat with traces, odorous or conspicuous signs-signals, mark it, protect it and protect it from alien invasion.

At the same time, there are public places and territories, for example, watering places, fords, passes, which, by generally accepted agreement, can be used by everyone, because there are simply no other ways to bypass or cross. Such places probably include the territories of the “exodus of the first ancestors” or the homeland.

The word-concept "ro;dina" comes from the Slavic word "genus". A clan is a community of blood relatives that has one common ancestor-ancestor (maternal or paternal clan). At the same time, the memory or name of the ancestor-progenitor (family name) is preserved for all members of the genus and is transmitted “by inheritance”.

Homeland is a “family” (Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine), “place of birth” (Bulgaria), “abundance of fruits” (Serbia, Croatia). Motherland is a synonym for the word “fatherland”, that is, “the place where a person was born, as well as the area, territory or country in which he was born and to the fate of which he feels his spiritual involvement, the place where the ancestors came from, the ancestral roots of a person” (based on the Wikipedia definition).

Undoubtedly, the movements (travels and migrations) of primitive people took place both within the boundaries of the territories of habitation (feeding) of primitive people, and beyond them. At the same time, going beyond the boundaries of the community, clan or tribe, separated families, communities or clans for a time (or forever) lost their direct connection with their homeland.

Therefore, seasonal, purposeful or forced migrations already at this time (50,000-49,000 BC) are probably perceived by everyone as a resettlement or movement to new territories, as a settlement over a vast territory, as a seizure of living space.

Initially, from the world of animal instincts, there is a rule of natural law generally accepted in wildlife - violation of the boundaries of a certain habitat entails an inevitable conflict, a clash with the owners of this territory. At the same time, the one who first captured and mastered this place has the priority right to possess a certain territory or habitat.

The territory inhabited by primitive people of this time (50,000-49,000 BC) could not be small in area, since it was a “territory of feeding”, collecting edible plants and active hunting. For the needs of the “appropriating primitive economy”, a relatively vast and resource-rich territory is needed.

That is why the problem of population density of habitats, stay and feeding of primitive people at all times of the Stone Age was one of the most important (the first problem is hunger), the survival of the indigenous community or clan depended on its solution.

That is why, according to the law of similarity (“everything is similar to everything”), as is customary in most animal species, after reaching the “relative age of independent life support”, young people inevitably left (migrated) into the expanses of the Oikumene, created their own groups, detachments and communities, conquered females, created families and searched for their territories of feeding and habitation, their "promised land".

Seasonal migrations, hunting trips to places of accumulation of migrating animals or to places of spawning of fish, as well as trips for the necessary resources to primitive quarries to deposits of raw stone are temporary or regular migrations. At the same time, the path of these migrations passed either along the borders of someone's territories, or along "wild" unexplored or undeveloped places (territories).

In the "wild" territories, they found "wild" or not frightened by humans animals, or the complete absence of rival rivals (except for predatory animals), or "wild", feral or ancient people (archanthropes, pithecanthropes, early Neanderthals). In the new undeveloped territories, the newcomers could develop relatively freely, start (generate) their own clans, be progenitors, demiurge heroes, creators of new cultures, “teachers” for the “wild” indigenous inhabitants.

Daily or seasonal migrations of hunters and gatherers, as a rule, did not go beyond the boundaries of certain territories mastered by primitive people, which were visually and tactilely (by touch) familiar and memorable to them.

So they went: to the forest for mushrooms and berries; to fields and meadows for edible and medicinal plants; to the installation sites of snares, traps and hunting pits; to the places of laying peaks; to traps; to the location of raw materials for the manufacture of tools, as well as for fuel (dry wood, dead wood) for fires. Inevitably and naturally, the paths of such “internal” migrations and hikes turned into well-marked or deliberately oriented many-kilometer paths, paths and “roads”.

Probably, already at this time (50,000-49,000 BC), the routes of internal migrations are marked by traces and remains of various events that took place at different times along these routes and in the surrounding area. These were: the bones of hunted animals, extinct bonfires, heaps of garbage and household garbage, wind barriers or camping shelters, fuel reserves, abandoned or lost equipment and tools, deliberately left signs-signals.

During such internal migrations (especially over a vast and unfamiliar area), it is also natural and inevitable that either individuals or groups of hunters, gatherers or migrant migrants could get lost, lose their bearings, get lost, go the other way. River floods, floods, stormy weather, thunderstorms, hurricanes, storms, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, avalanches, rockfalls, mudflows and other catastrophic climatic or natural phenomena could contribute to this.

Inevitably and naturally, the mythological, totemic and animistic thinking and worldview of primitive people of a given time (50,000-49,000 BC) spiritualized and humanized such an intervention of natural forces (phenomena), gave them structures-images of the intervention of ancestral spirits or other spirits ( forces, energies, phenomena, phenomena).

At the same time, inevitably and naturally in the event of misfortune or trouble, the structure-image of the spirit of the ancestors (usually protecting descendants) is perceived by primitive people as a manifestation of their anger, resentment, displeasure, dissatisfaction. The same applies to other climatic, weather and natural spirit-forces, spirit-phenomena, spirit-phenomena that are hostile to primitive people. Therefore, they need to be appeased ...

If in a collective of primitive people, in a family, in a community, in a phratry, in a tribe, frequent domestic, economic or ritual quarrels, conflicts, enmity arise, then inevitably, naturally and naturally, these dramatic, and sometimes tragic events are perceived as anger and displeasure. ancestral spirits, demanding for the sake of peace and harmony in society the expulsion of the guilty, the most quarrelsome or ardent opponents of established traditions, customs and rituals.

The same applies to criminals who have violated established taboos or prohibitions, committed acts of "vandalism" in relation to common property, food and raw materials, to violators and destroyers of established traditions, to thieves, rapists and murderers. Such, as a rule, are either expelled from the communities, or executed as an expiatory sacrifice to the spirits of the ancestors or for the repose of the spirits of the slain (appeasement of the mourners).

In any case, various types of migration at all times and, judging by the archaeological finds, especially at this time (50,000-49,000 BC), are a very common phenomenon of primitive culture or primitive civilization of all mankind (humanities).

Undoubtedly, one of the most important reasons for the migrations of primitive people at all times of the Stone Age was the depletion of food resources collected in the inhabited area, as well as the migration or disappearance of key animal species - objects of hunting.

Animal migrations, like the migrations of primitive people, are also subject to climatic and natural phenomena, but are more stable in time and space (travel routes, routes), since animals, to a greater extent than people, are guided by their genetic and innate instincts, instinctive memory.

That is why they stubbornly "storm" once successfully overcome passes, rifts, fords, dangerous or swampy places, despite the fact that predators or hunters can lie in wait for them in these places. Fish striving to spawn in the upper reaches of the rivers, in general, “stupidly”, “for good luck”, stubbornly and en masse try to slip through rapids, waterfalls, various obstacles, jumping or swimming at the same time into dams-traps, into labyrinths-pens arranged by hunters-fishermen .

Human migrations are motivated, diverse, thoughtful, purposeful or justified. As a rule, all human migrations, from small - daily, medium - seasonal and large - many months or many years, are returnable, that is, they involve returning "home" (to their homeland).

So primitive hunters always return to the place of camp-settlement, where children, women and old people are waiting for them. This is how gatherers and fishermen return “home”. So they return "home" with prey and stories about the adventures of a group of brave hunters-warriors. This is how forced wanderers, explorers, exiles or “prodigal sons” return “home”.

The instinctive desire to return to the homeland, to the place of birth, “to the native threshold”, to relatives and friends, to the ancestral spirits, to the “spiritual sources” is universal, ordinary, traditional and even ritual for each and every person on Earth. This does not always work out and happens, but such an instinctive desire exists and is present in everyone (to varying degrees).

Thus, it can be asserted with confidence that the migration paths of primitive people at all times of the Stone Age were not only one-way - migrations were two-way, “back and forth”, “to unknown distances and back home”, no matter how far and for a long time they went primitive people in the expanses of the Oikumene ...

That is why, at all times of the Stone Age, “moving”, “mixing”, “penetrating” stone industries, archaeological cultures, mixing representatives of different humanities and different types and types of primitive people - archanthropes, pithecanthropes, Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons.

That is why in the mythology of almost all peoples of the world there is an archetype, stable in time and space, and a structure-image of ancestral spirits, deity spirits, creator spirits, alien spirits, teacher spirits, god spirits, "aliens"...

The author does not exclude the arrival of extraterrestrial aliens to Earth, who could be gods-teachers for the indigenous primitive earthlings, but more realistically, probably and naturally, such "aliens" could be and probably were representatives of more developed human primitive civilizations, for example, the legendary Arctida-Hyperborea, Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda, Atlantis and many others are still unknown.

The main conclusion from the phenomenon of animal and human migrations is that they are not one-way (one-way), that the Austrian, Boreal and African migration paths of modern mankind are two-way paths of development of primitive civilizations, the paths of the history of human development.

Naturally, the farther primitive people went along the migration routes, the stronger their genetic, historical and cultural ties with their homeland, with genetic sources, with parental roots, with the traditions of their ancestors were torn. They were torn, but never interrupted, as the genes and genetic memory of people mutated, changed, developed, but retained their original instinctive structures-images and archetypes of behavior.

That is why sometimes children are born and suddenly begin to speak the “dead language” of long-vanished peoples and ethnic groups, shamans and psychics, heroes-demiurges and sorcerers-prophets, moral authorities and wise leaders, brave travelers-researchers and brilliant scientists-discoverers appear and are reborn. …

At this time (49,000 BC), the so-called "early migrations" of primitive people are being carried out, as a result of which the Oikumene of rational classical Cro-Magnons or primitive people of a modern look expanded.

It is characteristic that these primitive people move along the paths and roads "trodden" by their predecessors - they cross straits, deserts, rivers, mountains, plains practically in those places where hominids, archanthropes, pithecanthropes, ancient Neanderthals lived. This is evidenced by millennia-old archaeological cultural layers in caves and at sites of settlements.

Early or primary humanity (humanity) migrated within the African continent in the region of the location of the deep faults of the East African graben. Their Oikoumene (inhabited world) were the areas of the African Great Lakes, the rainforests, the savannas of the Sahara and South Africa, the basins of the great African rivers and the sea coast of the Mediterranean and Red Seas.

Most likely, at this time (50,000-49,000 BC), the migration process of the development of Homo sapiens sapiens, the race of humanity of classical Cro-Magnons in the African Sahara, in the regions of the Atlas (Atlas Mountains), the Ahaggar Highlands, the Tibesti Highlands, the East African Rift System, the Ethiopian Highlands, the Drakensberg Mountains and the Great Karoo of South Africa.

From these areas, “waves” carried out the first ancient and next (of a given time) migration of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons north to the fertile regions of the subtropical Mediterranean, to the northeast into the savannas of the Middle East, Asia Minor and Western Asia (Levant, Fertile Crescent ) and to the east along the ancient migration route of the inhabitants of the oceanic and island coasts of South Asia, Southeast Asia and the legendary Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu Sunda (Australia).

The most courageous and most enterprising representatives of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons, probably successfully "captured" (inhabited, settled, introduced, filled, etc.) the territories since ancient times occupied in Eurasia by Homo sapiens neanderthalensis - the race of humanity of the classical intelligent Neanderthals.

Under the dominance of the archetypal appropriating hunting-gathering primitive economy, there was no other type of development of territories occupied by someone other than forceful seizure or intensive displacement.

More numerous, better armed, cohesive, quick-witted and experienced "invaders", hardened in migratory battles, hunting and adventures, probably relatively easily, sometimes by onslaught, sometimes by deceit, sometimes by peaceful gift exchange of outlandish tools, things and objects, seized the initiative in using new forage and resource areas.

The main factor in the aggressive migration flows was the difference in the levels of development of newcomers and indigenous peoples.

More developed, enterprising, inventive, cultural and civilized "aliens" skillfully introduced, captured and conquered indigenous peoples living by ancient (obsolete) primitive traditions.

The "natives" had only to resist and fight mercilessly for their lives and traditions, or to reconcile and assimilate with the "newcomers" in order to become stronger than their invaders based on their knowledge and experience.

So it was, so it is, and so it will always be, because the process of aggressive migrations, perhaps, is natural and common not only for man, human associations, all mankind, but also for other mankind or intelligent human-like communities in living nature (in the Universe).

The Austrian or South-Eastern migration route is relatively easy, familiar, fertile, simple, as it runs practically in the same climatic or natural equatorial or subtropical zone (in the latitudinal direction).

Since ancient times, half-naked hominids, archanthropes, pithecanthropes and other ancient primitive people moved along the sea and ocean coasts, eating seafood. So they mastered the ways and places of feeding on the coast and shelf of the Red Sea, crossed the Strait of Sorrow (Bab el-Mandeb Strait), mastered the Arabian coast and the shelf of the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and Indochina.

The great rivers and river valleys of Western and South Asia undoubtedly attracted the attention of all migrants and carried them deep into the continents and countries. Part of the migrants inevitably met caves and grottoes convenient for living on their way, mastered or captured them, remained and mastered the surrounding territories in their own way. Especially many migrants of all times and peoples remained to live forever in the territory of South Asia (see map-illustration).

Having spread along the ocean coast of the Indian Ocean shelf to Southeast Asia, migrants of this time (50,000-49,000 BC) inevitably and naturally populate habitable places and territories, both in the depths of the continent and crossing the straits between the islands . This is facilitated by the relatively low level of the world ocean (60-61 m below the modern one) and the presence of the vast shelf land of Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu Sunda.

Most likely, the oldest “primitive civilization of the peoples of the sea” of this time (50,000-49,000 BC) was formed in this southeastern region.

It is characteristic that all the primitive "peoples of the sea" of the Australoid race (as later the Polynesians, ancient Greek Argonauts, medieval Varangians, Vikings and modern Pomors), making reconnaissance sea voyages to new lands, arrange their strongholds and colonies on the coast (on the coastal strip, capes and offshore islands) so that at any moment you can get on boats and go to sea.

Along with the waves of migrants, settlers and conquerors of various primitive races and peoples, new types of tools and weapons are spreading throughout the world of the Oikoumene, including, probably, bows and arrows.

The Austrian migration route in the East is divided into two streams (two branches) - southeast to Australia and north along the coast of the Pacific Ocean shelf and its seas. Primitive people get to Australia through the Sunda Islands, and they get to the north of East Asia, the Far East and Primorye up to Kamchatka and Chukotka along the Pacific coast.

The Austrian migration path of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - is directly connected with the sea, with water, with water vehicles, with experience in navigation, shipbuilding, with the ability to knit knots, create various structures, including dwellings on stilts or on tops of large trees, with the ability to carry or carry with them not only food supplies, but also the necessary resources for the manufacture of tools and combat, possibly and probably seeds of edible and medicinal plants and even some animals, for example, birds (chickens).

At this time (50,000-49,000 BC), the traditions of the life of the future modern peoples of South and Southeast Asia are being laid, but in Australia, Homo sapiens sapiens migrants - the races of mankind of the classical Cro-Magnons were met by the indigenous inhabitants - the natives of the first two waves of immigrants from Africa.

It is almost impossible to determine who conquered or assimilated whom at the present time, because (see the map-illustration) there was more than enough living space on the indicated Austrian path of primitive migrations for everyone.

If the ancient indigenous people with their "primitive" tools of labor and battle were content only with what the blessed Environment, then the alien migrants Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons with more advanced tools of labor and battle could find food and prey almost anywhere they wanted ...

The boreal or northern path of primitive migrations was undoubtedly very extensive, had many directions, streams and roads. From almost all the southern continents and countries, the inhabitants of the subtropics sought to regions with a temperate climate and a very rich wildlife.

The main thing is that innumerable herds of key herbivorous animals of the Mammoth Complex lived here - an inexhaustible source of vital resources. In Eurasia, Homo sapiens sapiens, the classical Cro-Magnon race of mankind, found vast expanses of living space.

Undoubtedly, the settlement of the Mediterranean coast and shelf of Southern Europe, the Middle East and Asia Minor by the most ancient Homo sapiens sapiens - representatives of the classical Cro-Magnon race of humanity - was carried out by several migration flows: from the territory of North-West Africa (Atlas Mountains), North Africa (the Mediterranean coast of the Sahara, highlands Ahaggar and Tibesti) and Northeast Africa (Ethiopian Highlands, Red Sea coast, Nile Valley).

By this time (50,000-49,000 BC), the expanses of Eurasia were already relatively densely populated by humanity Homo sapiens neanderthalensis - the race of humanity of classical intelligent Neanderthals and, possibly, other relic humanity, for example, Denisovans and other descendants of the most ancient archanthropes and pithecanthropes.

Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, a race of intelligent classical Neanderthals for several hundred thousand years, dominated the vast territories of Southern and Western Europe, Central and Eastern Europe, the East European (Russian) Plain, the Southern Urals, Altai, Baikal, Siberia, the Far East, Chukotka and Yakutia , and also, possibly, on the vast territory of the land shelf of the seas of the Arctic Ocean and Berengia.

Therefore, the invasion of new waves of African-Asian migrants Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - into Eurasia was probably not always peaceful, but most likely it was relatively aggressive, assertive, enterprising, in character approximately the same as the development of the expanses of Siberia by Russians in the 16th century. -XVII centuries AD.

At this time, in suitable seasons, probably only deserts and high mountains with snow-capped or icy peaks and passes were natural and insurmountable obstacles for intelligent classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons of this time (49,000 BC). The remaining natural zones, up to the glacial regions of the northern or high-mountain tundra, were mastered by man of this time.

Undoubtedly, in many territories of Africa and Eurasia, "populous" areas arose and existed with a relatively dense local indigenous population. The areas with a high density of modern population indicated on the illustration map may traditionally be the same inhabited at the present time (50,000-49,000 BC).

Naturally, on the indicated map-illustration, the areas of settlement of primitive people on the shelf flooded by the waters of the modern world ocean and seas after the end of the Great Glaciation and the World Flood (29,000-5000 BC) are not indicated. In addition, one cannot ignore the possible, probable, real, actual and actual existence of the legendary countries - Arctida-Hyperborea, Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda and Atlantis.

Undoubtedly, the migrations of primitive people of this time (50,000-49,000 BC) were not fast in time. Movement, travel and development of the territory was carried out by primitive people very slowly, unhurriedly, carefully, with long stops or long stays in open and abundant resource areas.

For example, the legendary prophet and leader Moses will lead a mass of his fellow tribesmen through the Middle Eastern deserts for 40 years until he unites all the tribes into a single united people and finally finds the Promised Land.

The African or return path of primitive migrations, of course, is not only the return to the genetic-historical ancestral home of the descendants of the most ancient "pioneers" or Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - "originators" from Africa of a given time (50,000-49,000 BC ., but also by the settlement of reasonable classical Cro-Magnons within Africa itself, in particular to southern Africa.

Keeping the characteristic for all ancient peoples The traditional way of life of the ancestors of the earth, the primitive people of this time (50,000-49,000 BC), living in relatively favorable climatic and natural-ecological conditions, are probably in no hurry to radically or revolutionary change something in their lives.

A comparative analysis of the bone remains and skulls of reasonable classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons in different places of the Oikumene (inhabited world) testifies to the isolated nature of their life activity.

Almost every family, community or clan, as a rule, lives on its own and communicates with other families, communities or clans only when necessary - for the exchange of "grooms" and "brides", for joint hunting, for cultural joint and ritual events, to protect against "aggressive aliens".

That is why, in different places of the Oikumene, relatively compactly living human associations of different primitive ethnic groups arose and exist, which modern anthropologists even refer to the category of “races” or to “variants of morphological races”, formed as a result of many thousands of years of migration and settlement of the most ancient African representatives of Homo sapiens sapiens - races of humanity of classical Cro-Magnons.

Such human associations include "Upper Paleolithic European variants of morphological races or types": "Grimaldian race", "Cro-Magnon race", "Barma-Grande race", "Chanceland race", "Oberkassel race", "Brunnian race or Brno type", "Brunn-Předmost or Loess race", "Aurignacian or Aurignacian race", "Solutrean race". All of them, to varying degrees, retain "features of the equatorial Negroid race", but already fully correspond to the appearance and structure of the Eurasian Caucasoid race of reasonable classical Cro-Magnons.

For example, in the Near East, the future "Natufians" (12500-9000 BC) will retain the external and skeletal features of the "proto-Caucasoids" of this time (50000-49000 BC) with "an admixture of some negroidity ” and will have a diverse appearance in comparison with other inhabitants of the Levant, the Mediterranean and adjacent regions.

In Africa, as a result of migrations and settlement of the respective territories, the “East African Bushman, Ethiopian and other types” of the intelligent classical Cro-Magnon race (Gamble Cave, Lake Elmentate, East Africa, 5000 BC), as well as the “Negroid type” (salt lake Nakuru, Kenya, East Africa), whose carriers will be more massive, taller, with an elongated skull, narrow and tall face than modern people.

The population of Africa has always, at all times, been distinguished and distinguished by “speciality”, heterogeneity, heterogeneity (heterogeneity) even in conditions of relatively close and dense coexistence in limited territories, which confirms the traditional isolated way of life of the ancient population in conditions of scarce food. natural resources habitat.

Although, undoubtedly, in general, there is a systemic relationship of Middle and Upper Paleolithic morphological races, types and groups, for example, North Africa (Magreb, Sahara, Nile Valley), but also, undoubtedly, the ancient population of North Africa south of the Sahara and the Sahara itself differs from the inhabitants of Nubia and regions adjacent to the Middle East. There will be especially many differences between the "Iberomaurs" and the population of Nubia (20,000-10,000 BC), the western "graceful mechtoid type" and the more massive carriers of the "mehta-afalu" type.

The inhabitants of East Asia (based on the remains in the Upper Cave, Zhoukoudian, China) will be distinguished into "three racial types" close to the Mongoloids with Ainoid features that bring them closer to modern Melanesians and Eskimos (but they are not).

The inhabitants of East Asia (China), Southeast Asia and Indonesia of this time (50,000-49,000 BC) still "do not have a pronounced Mongoloid", but have similarities with the features of the "eastern equatorials", "proto-Australoids ” or “Australian-Melanesian racial type” (finds in Moh Hieu, Konmong, Gua Gunun Runtuh, Lemdubu Cave, Nia, Tabon).

At the same time, primitive people with more or less pronounced Mongoloid features live in some places (Daluntan, Zhalainor, Chuangdong, Hang Cho).

In other places of residence or residence of the inhabitants of Southeast Asia, for example, Minatogawa, Dundianyan, Deyedun, Suchafenshan, Hang Gon - Dau Giai and Hang Muoi, they do not yet lend themselves to any modern racial classification and have features like southern Mongoloids, and Australoids, Ainu, carriers of the Yomon (or Jomon) culture, archaic American Indians and other "unidentified" morphological groups.

An even more intricate history of the earliest migrations of races and morphological types of reasonable classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons from Asia to America. Their genetic roots are found in the environment of various indigenous peoples and ethnic groups of Russian Siberia, the Far East, Primorye, Chukotka, East and Southeast Asia, the continental Asian and island coast of the Pacific Ocean.

However, most likely, the first inhabitants of America migrated to the "New World" from the vast territory of Berengia and the first American "proto-Indians" are the descendants of the "Beringians" of this time (50,000-49,000 BC). Under conditions of long-term isolation and independent development, the American "proto-Indians" formed specific Indian features of the structure of the skull and skeleton.

During the end of the Great Glaciation (39,000-5000 BC), as a result of two migration waves (15,000 BC and 10,000 BC), "Paleo-Indians" with genetic roots in the South Pacific races, and "Paleo-Americans" - Amerindians who came out of the depths of Berengia flooded by the ocean.

At the same time, the “Paleo-Indians” will have a “long and narrow braincase” of the skull, a powerful prognathous face with protruding jaws and devoid of a chin protrusion, as well as sundontism (a characteristic shape of the structure of the teeth). A similar structure of the face and teeth is characteristic of representatives of the Equatorian race and the southern Mongoloids (Ainu, Jomons, inhabitants of the legendary Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda).

"Paleo-Americans" or Amerindians will have "a massive, rounded and larger skull than that of the Paleo-Indians, a broader, shorter and orthognathic face without a strong protrusion of the facial region, synodont teeth ("Chinese teeth").

The heterogeneity or “speciality”, heterogeneity, heterogeneity of the most ancient cultures of America, their “irreducibility to any primary source”, is indirect evidence of repeated migrations or “discoveries” of America by the most ancient Asian population of the “Old World”.

At this time (50,000-49,000 BC), the oldest population of Australia and adjacent territories also has characteristic features and signs of repeated (possibly regular) migrations. Most likely, the Australian Aborigines are also descendants of two (at least two) migration flows of people from Africa common to the entire Southeast Asian region.

At this and the next time (50,000-15,000 BC), several waves of migration will also bring massive and graceful migrants to the Australian region - primitive people of the modern type. So at this time (49,000-40,000 BC), primitive people of the “Melanesian type” migrate to Australia - dark-skinned, curly-haired and undersized. The descendants of these migrants will be "Tasmanians" and "Negrito-like Barrines" (northern Queensland, Australia).

The second large-scale migration will take place at the "height" of the Great Glaciation (about 20,000 BC). The new southeastern migrants, outwardly close to the Ainu, will displace the Australian Aborigines, Tasmanians and Barrines, partially assimilate with them and “give birth” to their descendants (“Murreys”) - people of the modern type, endowed with the most massive body and skeleton, relatively fair-skinned, straight-haired, narrow- and straight-nosed, with reinforced tertiary hairline (powerful beards).

These southeastern sentient classical Cro-Magnons will populate western, southern Australia and the eastern Australian Pacific coast (see illustration map).

The third wave of mass migrations in Australia will occur around 15,000 BC. At this time, the northern and central parts of Australia will be settled by the "Carpentarians" - dark-skinned, wavy-haired, tall primitive people of the modern type, with an average development of hair on the face and body.

The apparent uniformity of the appearance of the Australian Aborigines is erroneous - their genetic diversity is the same as that of the indigenous inhabitants of Southeast Asia. In fact, Australia was probably the continent where waves of migrants fled, fleeing various catastrophic climatic and natural phenomena, instinctively directed along the most ancient routes and migration paths of the ancestral spirits, or deliberately aimed at the development of "new living spaces".

Thus, several morphological variants or types of the indigenous population are distinguished in Australia: barrinoid, Carpentarian, Murray, as well as central and western Australian.

The barrinoid type of the Australian Aborigines is the closest to the Afro-Asiatic ancestors that traditionally inhabit the tropical rainforests of Queensland (Australia). Australian "barrinoids" are most similar to the Melanesians.

They are distinguished by small ("pygmy") height (157-158 cm), relatively dark skin, very dark eyes, dominance of curly hair, underdevelopment of tertiary hairline on the beard and body, deep nose bridge, concave and small nose, as well as small teeth. True, half of the Negro-Australoid "barrinoids" have relatively large teeth.

The length and width of the head of the Australian "barrinoids" is greater than that of the "Arnhemland Carpentarians". At the same time, the foreheads of the “barrinoids” are steep, almost straight and wide, and the eyebrows (among the Australian aborigines) are minimal, although they are powerful in comparison with the Caucasians. The faces of the "barrinoids" or "barrines" (Australia) are low and very narrow, the cheekbones and the width of the lower jaw are minimal for the natives of Australia; the height of the nose is also small.

"Barrinoids" or "barrines" probably retained the typical appearance of the most ancient Australian aborigines - the descendants of the first migration waves of immigrants from Africa, as well as the appearance features of even more ancient primitive people - archanthropes and pithecanthropes (praneanderthals).

The Carpentarian type of Australian Aborigines is most common in the north of Australia. "Carpentarians" have the darkest skin color among the Australian Aborigines, the tallest and narrow physique. They have the most convex, longitudinally protruding noses and are not as wide in diameter as those of the "barrinoids" ("barrinos").

The "Carpentarians" have the shortest and narrowest heads of the Australian Aborigines, and the foreheads have an average slope (compared to other types of Australian Aborigines). The superciliary of the "Carpentarians" is very powerful, but the merging of the superciliary ridges into a typical "primitive" superciliary ridge is less common than among other natives.

The teeth of the "Carpentarians" are of average size for Australia and relatively large for other primitive peoples of Eurasia. Their hair is usually wavy, curly, quite often curly. At the same time, the "Carpentarians" in terms of blood groups and genetics differ sharply from the Papuan morphological type of primitive people.

In comparison with the world and Australian "standards", the beards and hair on the bodies of the "Carpentarians" are average, but the male faces of the "Carpentarians" can be covered with a continuous short beard, mustache and sideburns.

The typical relatively isolated way of life of primitive people of this time (50,000-49,000 BC) is also manifested in the fact that the "Carpentarians" of the two large northern peninsulas of Australia - Arnhem Land and Cape York - differ in appearance and behavior from each other . Moreover, the “Arnhemland Carpentarians” are more isolated from the rest of the natives, they have the largest growth in Australia - 168.3 cm, the minimum length and width of the head, but the maximum (for Australia) head height.

"Cape York Carpentarians" are close to the general Australian "standards" of appearance, probably with more Papuan influence, and admixture of Barrinoid and Murray morphological types.

In South Australia, the most common Aboriginal "Murray type". "Murrays" have the most characteristic distinctive morphological features: "the lightest color of skin and eyes, the most slightly wavy hair, the strongest beard and mustache growth in the world, the largest - in length, width and height - head, the widest forehead and the highest frequency of maximum eyebrow shape, the straightest profile of the back of the nose, the largest teeth (all Murrays are only macrodont).

There are only two areas of Australia where “macrodont” (“big-toothedness”) is exceptionally high - this is an area in the extreme southeast of Australia (opposite Tasmania, where Tasmanian natives are also almost all macrodont) and an area in the center of the east coast of Victoria (Australia) .

The "Murrays" have a distinctive red-brown skin color that is different from the skin color of other Aboriginal people and rarely has the "chocolate color" that prevails in the rest of the indigenous inhabitants of Australia. The yellow-brown skin color that dominates other Aborigines does not exist in the "Murrays".

The "Murrays" are dominated by slightly wavy hair, but there are also curly hair, especially in areas adjacent to Tasmania. The slope of the forehead among the "Murrays" is different, but on average the maximum for the Aborigines of Australia. Also, the superciliary (brow ridge) is maximally developed, which, as a rule, gives their faces a sullen expression.

The faces of the "Murrays" are relatively high, and the lower jaws are very wide. Murray noses are perhaps the narrowest ("normal") among Australian Aborigines, average height is 164.7 cm, and body length, body weight and shoulder width are usually maximum in comparison with other Aborigines.

"Murrays" occupy territories on the east coast of Australia, in the steppes and savannahs of South and Western Australia, and are likely to take root on the continent during the "second wave of migrations" (about 15,000 BC).

The Australian aborigines of Central Australia are even closer in morphological type to the race of intelligent classical Cro-Magnons of the modern type. They have (in comparison with other aborigines) heads of medium length, relatively narrow and even very narrow foreheads, narrow faces, but wide noses.

For the natives of Central Australia, light (sometimes even blond) hair color in children and in some young women is characteristic. As they age, their hair tends to darken, but fade quickly at the ends of their hair. Central Australian Aborigines are tall, some are as tall as Australia. At the same time, their physique is massive, and the chest is very powerful.

The Aboriginals of Western Australia have heads of medium length, low and even narrower than in Central Australia, they have a more pronounced "superciliary relief and a very low face and nose for Australian Aborigines." At the same time, the faces of the West Australian Aborigines are relatively wide, and the noses are very wide.

All the above morphological features testify to the diversity of the native and alien inhabitants of Australia, their migration penetration into Australia, their long-term separate and joint coexistence.

Migration processes on the territory of the Russian part of Eurasia, especially on the territory of the East European (Russian) Plain, are especially significant for the author of the "Chronology". This is due to the fact that people and key animals of the Mammoth Complex have always and constantly lived in these vast territories - the guarantors of the existence and vital activity of mankind, races and civilizations of intelligent classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons of this and subsequent times (50,000-40,000 BC). ).

The time will come and genetic studies will confirm the truth of the theory of the migratory origin and development of modern humanity and modern races, the multi-regional model of the emergence and development of primitive civilizations and prove the truth and historicity of the "mythical" or legendary centers of world civilizations - Arctida-Hyperborea, Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda , Atlantis and, possibly, other (still unknown) primitive civilizations.

The true history of modern humanity in the future, in the near future, perhaps in the next chapters of the "Chronology" ...

Apparently, already for the most ancient species of fossil people, it was typical to carry out very significant migrations in terms of their distance, associated with the search for more favorable habitats. According to scientists, the process of turning a monkey into a man took place in a very vast territory, covering South Asia, the Middle East, Southeast Africa, but the remains of prehistoric people are also found outside this territory - in Southeast Asia (Java, Vietnam). , China), in Europe, etc. Of course, that various areas of discovery of the remains of the most ancient fossil people - Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus - allow us to say that even the representatives of these species of the most ancient man were characterized by a significant degree of mobility in the development of geographical space.

With even greater certainty, such a statement is characteristic of Neanderthals - the direct descendants of the most ancient fossil people. During the early Paleolithic period (1 million years BC - 40 thousand years BC)- the lifetime of Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus and Neanderthal - an ancient man masters large areas of the planet. The migrations of ancient man across the space of the Earth were largely due to natural factors - weather and climatic conditions, the presence of animal and vegetable food, and so on.

About 100 thousand years BC. e. the ice age begins. Cooling and the onset of glaciers, which reached the middle reaches of the Dnieper and Don in Eastern Europe, to the Alps in Western Europe and to the Himalayas in Asia, sharply reduced the distribution area of ​​ancient man. The peculiarity of the life of an ancient man, which consisted in the fact that he provided himself with food through gathering or hunting, necessitated the implementation of constant migrations following the herds of wild animals, the hunting of which served as the main source of food. Thanks to the ability to make fire, sew clothes, build dwellings, create specialized (scrapers, horns, spears, etc.) and combined (for example, knots) tools, an ancient person could follow the herds of mammoths, deer, wild horses that lived in tundra, along the edge of glaciers.

During the period of the Upper or Late Paleolithic (40-30 thousand - 15-10 thousand years BC) with the onset of warming and the retreat of glaciers to the north, ancient man gets new opportunities for settling. This time is associated with the appearance of a modern type of man - Cro-Magnon. Its area of ​​​​settlement reaches the middle course of the Great Siberian rivers (Yenisei, Lena, Ob).

During the Mesolithic period (11-10 thousand - 6-5 thousand years BC) climatic conditions are formed on the planet, which differ little from the climatic conditions at present. Man moves further north, but in the Mesolithic period he does not yet reach the Arctic coast. During the Mesolithic period, America was settled from the north, through the Bering Strait and Australia.

In the Neolithic era (6-5 thousand - 3 thousand years BC) there is a significant increase in the world's population. According to approximate data, the population at that time reached 10-17 million people. There is a further improvement of tools and means of transportation. Boats, skis and sledges were invented. These inventions allowed man to move even further north, up to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. This time is characterized by the beginning of the emergence of hoe farming and cattle breeding, the emergence of settlements with houses made of logs, raw bricks and other materials.

In the Bronze Age (3-2 thousand BC) the invention of the wagon. In the second half of the 3rd millennium, wagons were already known in the steppes of Eastern Europe. Bulls were usually harnessed to heavy carts, which had massive disk-shaped wheels made of a large piece of wood. Around the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. The spoked wheel was invented, which made it possible to create light chariots drawn by horses. During this period, there is a further development of cattle breeding, which caused the emergence of nomadic peoples, such as the Hyksos, Kassites, Aryas.

The Bronze Age is also associated with the formation of the first states in the countries of the Ancient East. From now on, population migration will be associated not only with the influence of natural factors, but also with state policy in relation to certain social groups.