The results of the 30-year war briefly. Causes of the Thirty Years' War. course of the Thirty Years' War. Briefly

THIRTY YEARS WAR (1618–1648) - war of the Habsburg bloc (Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs, Catholic princes of Germany, papacy) with the anti-Habsburg coalition (Protestant princes of Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Holland and France). One of the first all-European military conflicts, which affected, to one degree or another, almost all European countries (including Russia), with the exception of Switzerland. The war began as a religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but then escalated into a struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe.

Prerequisites:

The great-power policy of the Habsburgs (Since the time of Charles V, the leading role in Europe belonged to the House of Austria - the Habsburg dynasty).

The desire of the papacy and Catholic circles to restore the power of the Roman Church in that part of Germany, where in the first half of the XVI century. Reformation won

Existence of disputed regions in Europe

1. Holy Roman Empire of the German nation: contradictions between the emperor and the German princes, religious schism.

2. Baltic Sea (struggle between Protestant Sweden and Catholic Poland for territory)

3. Fragmented Italy, which France and Spain tried to divide.

The reasons:

The unstable balance established after the religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, which fixed the split of Germany along religious lines, was in jeopardy in the 1580s.

At the very end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII century. Catholic pressure on Protestants intensified: in 1596 Archduke Ferdinand Habsburg, the ruler of Styria, Carinthia and Kraina, forbade his subjects to profess Lutheranism and destroyed all Lutheran churches; in 1606 Duke Maximilian of Bavaria occupied the Protestant city of Donauwert and converted its churches into Catholic ones. This forced the Protestant princes of Germany to create in 1608 for the "protection of the religious world" the Evangelical Union, headed by Elector Frederick IV of the Palatinate; supported them french king http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/istoriya/GENRIH_IV.htmlHenry IV. In response, in 1609 Maximilian of Bavaria formed the Catholic League, entering into an alliance with the main spiritual princes of the Empire.

In 1609, the Habsburgs, taking advantage of the dispute between two Protestant princes over the inheritance of the duchies of Jülich, Cleve and Berg, tried to establish control over these strategically important lands in northwestern Germany. Holland, France and Spain intervened in the conflict. However, the assassination of Henry IV in 1610 prevented the war. The conflict was settled by the Xanten Agreement of 1614 on the division of the Jülich-Cleve inheritance.

In the spring of 1618, an uprising broke out in Bohemia against the rule of the Habsburgs, caused by the destruction of several Protestant churches and the violation of local liberties; On May 23, 1618, the townspeople http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/Earth_sciences/geografiya/PRAGA.html of Prague threw three representatives of Emperor Matthew (1611–1619) out of the windows of Prague Castle (Defenestration). Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia joined the rebellious Bohemia. This event marked the beginning of the Thirty Years' War.

Sides:

On the side of the Habsburgs: Austria, most of the Catholic principalities of Germany, Spain, united with Portugal, the Holy See, Poland (traditional conservative forces). The Habsburg bloc was more monolithic, the Austrian and Spanish houses kept in touch with each other, often conducting joint military operations. Wealthier Spain provided financial support to the emperor.

On the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition: France, Sweden, Denmark, the Protestant principalities of Germany, the Czech Republic, Transylvania, Venice, Savoy, the Republic of the United Provinces, supported by England, Scotland and Russia (strengthening national states). There were major contradictions between them, but they all receded into the background before the threat of a common enemy.

Periodization:

(There were several separate conflicts outside of Germany: the War of Spain with Holland, the War of the Mantuan Succession, the Russian-Polish War, the Polish-Swedish War, etc.)

1. Czech period (1618-1625)

Emperor Matthew of Habsburg (1612–1619) tried to reach a peace agreement with the Czechs, but the negotiations were interrupted after his death in March 1619 and the election to the German throne of the implacable enemy of the Protestants, Archduke Ferdinand of Styria (Ferdinand II). The Czechs entered into an alliance with the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gabor; his troops invaded Austrian Hungary. In May 1619, Czech troops under the command of Count Matthew Turn entered Austria and laid siege to Vienna, the residence of Ferdinand II, but were soon due to the invasion of Bohemia by the imperial general Bukua. At the General Landtag in Prague in August 1619, representatives of the rebellious regions refused to recognize Ferdinand II as their king and elected in his place the head of the Union, Elector Frederick V of the Palatinate. However, by the end of 1619, the situation began to take shape in favor of the emperor, who received large subsidies from the pope and military assistance from Philip III of Spain. In October 1619, he concluded an agreement on joint actions against the Czechs with the head of the Catholic League, Maximilian of Bavaria, and in March 1620, with Elector Johann-Georg of Saxony, the largest Protestant prince in Germany. The Saxons occupied Silesia and Lusatia, Spanish troops invaded the Upper Palatinate. Taking advantage of the differences within the Union, the Habsburgs obtained from her an obligation not to provide assistance to the Czechs.

Under the command of General Tilly, the army of the Catholic League pacified upper Austria while the Imperial troops restored order in lower Austria. Then, having united, they moved to the Czech Republic, bypassing the army of Frederick V, who was trying to fight a defensive battle on distant lines. The battle took place near Prague (Battle of the White Mountain) on November 8, 1620. The Protestant army suffered a crushing defeat. As a result, the Czech Republic remained in the power of the Habsburgs for another 300 years. The first phase of the war Eastern Europe finally ended when Gábor Bethlen signed peace with the emperor in January 1622, gaining vast territories in eastern Hungary.

Results: Habsburg victory

1. The collapse of the Evangelical Union and the loss by Frederick V of all his possessions and title. Frederick V was expelled from the Holy Roman Empire.

2. The Czech Republic fell, Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate, and Spain captured the Palatinate, securing a foothold for another war with the Netherlands.

3. An impetus for a closer unity of the anti-Habsburg coalition. June 10, 1624 France and Holland signed the Treaty of Compiègne. It was joined by England (June 15), Sweden and Denmark (July 9), Savoy and Venice (July 11).

2. Danish period (1625-1629)

The attempt of the Habsburgs to establish themselves in Westphalia and Lower Saxony and carry out a Catholic restoration there threatened the interests of the Protestant states of Northern Europe - Denmark and Sweden. In the spring of 1625, Christian IV of Denmark, supported by England and Holland, began hostilities against the emperor. Together with the troops of Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, the Danes launched an offensive in the Elbe basin.

To repel it, Ferdinand II granted emergency powers to the new commander-in-chief of the Czech Catholic nobleman Albrecht Wallenstein. He gathered a huge mercenary army and on April 25, 1626 defeated Mansfeld near Dessau. On August 27, Tilly defeated the Danes at Lutter. In 1627 the Imperials and Ligists captured Mecklenburg and all of Denmark's mainland possessions (Holstein, Schleswig, and Jutland).

But plans to create a fleet to capture the island part of Denmark and attack Holland fell through due to opposition Hanseatic League. In the summer of 1628, Wallenstein, seeking to put pressure on the Hansa, besieged the largest Pomeranian port of Stralsund, but failed. In May 1629, Ferdinand II concluded the Treaty of Lübeck with Christian IV, returning to Denmark the possessions taken from her in exchange for her obligation not to interfere in German affairs.

The Catholic League sought to return the Catholic possessions lost in the Peace of Augsburg. Under her pressure, the emperor issued the Restitution Edict (1629). Wallenstein's unwillingness to implement the edict and the complaints of the Catholic princes about his arbitrariness forced the emperor to dismiss the commander.

Results:

1. Peace of Lübeck Empire with Denmark

2. The beginning of the policy of restoration of Catholicism in Germany (Edict of Restitution). Complication of relations between the emperor and Wallenstein.

3. Swedish period (1630-1635)

Sweden was the last major state capable of changing the balance of power. Gustav II Adolf, king of Sweden, sought to stop the Catholic expansion, as well as to establish his control over the Baltic coast of northern Germany. Prior to this, Sweden was kept from the war by the war with Poland in the struggle for the Baltic coast. By 1630, Sweden ended the war and enlisted the support of Russia (Smolensk War). The Swedish army was armed with advanced small arms and artillery. It did not have mercenaries, and at first it did not rob the population. This fact has had a positive effect.

Ferdinand II had been dependent on the Catholic League ever since he disbanded Wallenstein's army. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631), Gustavus Adolphus defeated the Catholic League under the command of Tilly. A year later, they met again, and again the Swedes won, and General Tilly died (1632). With the death of Tilly, Ferdinand II turned his attention back to Wallenstein. Wallenstein and Gustav Adolf clashed at the fierce Battle of Lützen (1632), where the Swedes narrowly won, but Gustav Adolf died.

In March 1633 Sweden and the German Protestant principalities formed the Heilbronn League; the fullness of the military and political power in Germany passed to an elected council headed by the Swedish chancellor. But the lack of a single authoritative commander began to affect the Protestant troops, and in 1634 the previously invincible Swedes suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Nördlingen (1634).

On suspicion of treason, Wallenstein was removed from command, and then killed by soldiers of his own guard in Eger Castle.

Results: Peace of Prague (1635).

Annulment of the "Edict of Restitution" and the return of possessions to the framework of the Peace of Augsburg.

The unification of the army of the emperor and the armies of the German states into one army of the "Holy Roman Empire".

The ban on the formation of coalitions between princes.

Legalization of Calvinism.

This peace, however, could not suit France, since the Habsburgs, as a result, became stronger.

4. Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648)

Having exhausted all diplomatic reserves, France entered the war itself. With her intervention, the conflict finally lost its religious overtones, since the French were Catholics. France involved its allies in Italy in the conflict. She managed to prevent new war between Sweden and the Republic of both peoples (Poland), which concluded the Stumsdorf Truce, which allowed Sweden to transfer significant reinforcements from behind the Vistula to Germany. The French attacked Lombardy and the Spanish Netherlands. In response, in 1636, the Spanish-Bavarian army under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Spain crossed the Somme and entered Compiègne, while the imperial general Matthias Galas tried to capture Burgundy.

In the summer of 1636, the Saxons and other states that had signed the Peace of Prague turned their troops against the Swedes. Together with the imperial forces, they pushed the Swedish commander Baner to the north, but were defeated at the Battle of Wittstock. In 1638, in East Germany, Spanish troops attacked the superior forces of the Swedish army. Having avoided defeat, the Swedes spent a hard winter in Pomerania.

The last period of the war proceeded in conditions of exhaustion of both opposing camps, caused by colossal tension and overexpenditure of financial resources. Maneuvering actions and small battles prevailed.

In 1642, Cardinal Richelieu died, and a year later the king of France also died. Louis XIII. Five-year-old Louis XIV became king. His regent, Cardinal Mazarin, began peace negotiations. In 1643, the French finally stopped the Spanish invasion at the Battle of Rocroix. In 1645 Swedish marshal Lennart Torstensson defeated the Imperials at the Battle of Jankow near Prague, and Prince Condé defeated the Bavarian army at the Battle of Nördlingen. The last prominent Catholic military leader, Count Franz von Mercy, died in this battle.

In 1648, the Swedes (Marshal Carl Gustav Wrangel) and the French (Turenne and Condé) defeated the Imperial-Bavarian army at the Battle of Zusmarhausen and Lans. Only the imperial territories and Austria proper remained in the hands of the Habsburgs.

Results: In the summer of 1648, the Swedes besieged Prague, but in the midst of the siege, news came of the signing of the Peace of Westphalia on October 24, 1648, which put an end to the Thirty Years' War.

Westphalian peace.

The Peace of Westphalia means two peace agreements in Latin - Osnabrück and Münster, signed in 1648 and was the result of the first modern diplomatic congress and laid the foundation for a new order in Europe based on the concept of state sovereignty. The agreements affected the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, the Netherlands and their allies represented by the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. Until 1806, the norms of the Osnabrück and Münster treaties were part of the constitutional law of the Holy Roman Empire.

Participants goals:

France - break the encirclement of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs

Sweden - to achieve hegemony in the Baltic

Holy Roman Empire and Spain - to achieve smaller territorial concessions

Terms

1. Territory: France received South Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verden, Sweden - Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen, Saxony - Lusatia, Bavaria - Upper Palatinate, Brandenburg - Eastern Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Minden

2. The independence of Holland was recognized.

The war between France and Spain continued for another eleven years and ended with the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659.

Meaning: The Peace of Westphalia resolved the contradictions that led to the Thirty Years' War

1. Equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants, legalized the confiscation of church lands, abolished the previously existing principle “whose power is the faith”, instead of which the principle of religious tolerance was proclaimed, which further reduced the significance of the confessional factor in relations between states;

2. put an end to the desire of the Habsburgs to expand their possessions at the expense of the territories of states and peoples Western Europe and undermined the authority of the Holy Roman Empire: from that time on, the old hierarchical order of international relations, in which the German emperor was considered senior in rank among monarchs, was destroyed and the heads independent states Europe, who had the title of kings, were equal in rights with the emperor;

3. in accordance with the norms established by the Peace of Westphalia, the main role in international relations, previously owned by monarchs, passed to sovereign states.

Effects

1. The Thirty Years' War was the first war that affected all sections of the population. AT Western history it remained one of the most difficult European conflicts among the predecessors of the World Wars of the 20th century.

2. The immediate result of the war was that over 300 small German states received full sovereignty with nominal membership in the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire in 1806.

3. The war did not lead to the automatic collapse of the Habsburgs, but changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became evident. In addition, Sweden has become great power, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic.

4. The main result of the Thirty summer war there was a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Their foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests.

5. It is customary to count from the Peace of Westphalia modern era in international relations.

And the religious wars of the sixteenth century. only consolidated the split of Europe, but did not lead to a solution to the problems generated by these events. The confrontation between the Catholic and Protestant states of Germany was especially acute, where the slightest change could lead to a violation of the fragile balance established during the Reformation. Thanks to the developed system of international relations, the change in the situation in Germany affected the interests of almost all other European states. Both Catholics and Protestants had powerful allies outside the empire.

The combination of all these causes created a dangerous situation in Europe, which could be blown up by the slightest spark that arose in such an electrified atmosphere. This spark, from which a pan-European fire flared up, was a national uprising that began in 1618 in the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia (Czech Republic).

The beginning of the war

Revolt of the Czech Estates

By religion, the Czechs from the time of Jan Hus differed from other Catholic peoples who lived in the possessions of the Habsburgs, and have long enjoyed traditional liberties. Religious oppression and an attempt by the emperor to deprive the kingdom of its privileges led to a rebellion. In 1620 the Czechs suffered a crushing defeat. This event became a turning point in the entire history of the Czech Republic. The previously flourishing Slavic kingdom turned into a disenfranchised Austrian province, in which all signs of national identity were purposefully destroyed.

Peace of Westphalia 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War, confirmed the equality of the Catholic and Lutheran religions throughout Germany. The largest Protestant states of Germany increased their territories, mainly at the expense of the former church possessions. Some church possessions came under the rule of foreign sovereigns - the kings of France and Sweden. The positions of the Catholic Church in Germany were weakened, and the Protestant princes finally secured their rights and actual independence from the empire. The Peace of Westphalia legitimized the fragmentation of Germany, giving the many states that made up her full sovereignty. By drawing a line under the era of the Reformation, the Peace of Westphalia opened a new chapter in European history.

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Thirty Years' War(1618-1648) - the first military conflict in the history of Europe, affecting to one degree or another almost all European countries (including Russia), with the exception of Switzerland. The war started as religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but then escalated into a struggle against the hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. The last significant religious war in Europe, gave rise to the Westphalian system international relations.

Scheme (course, periods) of the war:

1. Czech period 1618-1625

2. Danish period 1625-1629

3. Swedish period 1630-1635

4. Franco-Swedish period 1635-1648

5. Other conflicts at the same time

6. Peace of Westphalia. (Internet)

Causes of the war

1). Internal causes. Strengthening of the Counter-Reformation in Germany (note: Reformation is a religious, broad political movement aimed at reforming the Catholic Church in the 16th century).

2). 1608 - 1609 - Creation of two military-political unions (camps): the Evangelical Union and the Catholic League. Bottom line: the threat of a military conflict between two opposing camps in Germany and the threat of interference in Germany's affairs by other states (external threat)

3). The struggle took place under religious banners, but the interests were not religious, but material, political calculations, class ambitions

four). external reasons. The resumption of confrontation between the coalitions: the Spanish-Austrian Habsburgs and France. Both powers claimed hegemony in Europe

5). England pursued a controversial policy on the eve of the war and collaborated with the anti-Habsburg coalition

6). Russia, Poland, the Ottomans did not take part in the war, but they had an impact. Russia contributed to the success of the Protestants by holding down the forces of Poland. The Ottomans fought with Persia (Iran) and did not fight on two fronts, they were for France.

7). 1618 - an uprising in Czech Prague of Protestant subjects against Emperor Ferdinand II (1619 - 1637) due to the dominance of foreign officials in the government of Prague, appointed by the Habsburgs - this is the impetus for war.

Stage number 1. Bohemian period of the war (1618 - 1623)

1. Czech troops began to fight with the Habsburgs. The Czech Republic refused the Czech crown to the Habsburgs. The Czech forces and the Protestant mercenaries from Germany were divided - this is their weakness, and the Catholics (the Catholic League of Germany) achieved unity.

2. 1620 - the defeat of the Czech troops by the combined forces of the Catholic League and the imperial army

3. The result of the battle: - Jesuits flooded the Czech Republic, - worship is only Catholic, - everything else is prohibited, - the national shrines of the Czechs were desecrated, - the Inquisition expelled all Protestants from the Czech Republic, - torture and execution of the participants in the uprising, - a blow was dealt to craft, trade, - confiscation of lands and their transfer to German Catholics - the emergence of new magnates - the Czech Republic is deprived of all its former privileges.

Stage number 2. Danish war period (1625 - 1629)

1. The Danish king Christian IV feared for the fate of his possessions, which included secularized Catholic church lands, and also, in case of victories, wanted to annex more conquered lands. He secures cash subsidies from England and Holland and recruits a mercenary army. North German princes join Christian 4

2. By 1630 - Emperor Ferdinand 2 creates a huge army of mercenaries (up to 100 thousand people) through extortion and devastation of cities and villages

3. After the battles with the Danish king, F2 emerges victorious and Christian 4 asks for peace

4. 1629 - conclusion of peace in Lübeck. Outcome: Denmark retained its territories, but no longer interferes in German affairs F2

5. The result of the entire war: - F2 dealt a powerful blow to the Protestants, - had a strong army, - through his vassal (Wallenstein) began to build a fleet in the North (Baltic) to control the sea routes, - Protestants were dissatisfied with imperial policy and the results of the war, - discord in the Habsburg camp - a sharp violation of the political balance in Germany.

Stage number 3. Swedish period of the war (1630 - 1635)

1. 1630 - The Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus lands in Pomerania with support from France. The army is homogeneous from personally free peasants-countrymen + mercenaries with high moral and combat qualities. Used firearms and light cannons and cavalry

2. 1631 - the battle near Leipzig is a turning point in the war. Opened the way to Central and Southern Germany

3. Ferdinand II recruits an army. The Swedish army becomes mercenary and robs everyone in its path, combat-ready units died in the first battles

4. 1632 - the second battle near Leipzig. The Swedes won, but their king Gustavus Adolf died, F2 goes to the Czech Republic

5. 1634 - the Swedish army loses its former power, military discipline and is defeated by F2

6. 1635 - conclusion of peace. North German Protestants joined the world. The political situation is favorable for the Habsburgs. Tactics of negotiating F2 with the enemy - designed for a split within the enemy.

Stage number 4. Franco-Swedish war period (1635 - 1648)

1. Great attrition of the parties due to many years of war in people and finances. The nature of the war: maneuverability, small battles, skirmishes, several times large battles

2. Early 1640s - success with the French

3. 1642 - the Swedes won the battle of Breitenfeld, went into Germany, France - captured Alsace

4. 1646 - the Swedes defeated F2 in South Bohemia

5. Ferdinand III (1637 - 1657) understands that the war is lost and seeks peace negotiations + partisan movement inside Germany against the emperor. In peace negotiations, a senseless war continues.

Stage number 5. Peace of Westphalia (total)

1. This local war at the beginning, involved many states at the end, lasted 30 years, became the First All-European War

2. 1648 - the conclusion of peace in the cities of Münster (Westphalia) between the emperor F3 and France, in Osnabrück (Westphalia) between Sweden and Germany

3. Results of the war:

a). Sweden:

The lands of Eastern Pomerania (Germany) and part of the coastal cities withdrew

Swedish kings became imperial princes

Withdrawn some secularized church lands

Received a large cash payment

Control of the rivers of Northern Germany

b). France:

Received Alsace, part of the territory of Germany, departed 10 imperial cities, confirmed the rights to three Lorraine bishoprics

in). Republic of the United Provinces:

Received recognition of its independence from all powers

Sovereignty issues resolved

G). Swiss Union:

Recognition of their sovereignty

Territory expansion

e). Spain:

She continued to fight with France, peace was concluded only in 1659.

4. Consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany

5. There are several religions in Germany: Lutherans, Catholics, Calvinism

6. The ruin of Germany and the countries that were part of the Habsburg empire

7. The population decreased several times, many villages disappeared, the lands were overgrown with forests, mines were abandoned, Germany slowed down in its development

8. This is the boundary of two periods in history.

At the turn of the 2nd centuries of the 16th and 17th centuries, this situation was unstable and carried the prerequisites for another all-European conflict. From 1494 to 1559, Europe experienced a conflict called the Italian Wars. In the era of modern times, conflicts are becoming more and more large-scale and acquire a pan-European character. What is the complexity of the international situation?

France, after the religious wars ended and Henri (Henry) 4 of Bourbon reigned, began to prepare to expand its territory, strengthen its borders and establish claims to hegemony in Europe. Those. the place of hegemon, which was occupied by Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs in the middle of the 16th century, did not remain vacant for a long time. In order for his hegemonic aspirations to have some basis, Henry 4 resumes, or rather confirms, the agreement concluded back in 1535-36 with Ottoman Turkey, aimed at setting the Turks against the Venetian Republic and the Austrian Habsburgs.

In the 16th century, the French tried to solve the problem of the Habsburgs and eliminate, at least for a while, the pliers of the Habsburgs, Spanish and Austrian, who squeezed France from the east and west.

Now the French are preparing to start wars to expand their territory and finally overthrow the Habsburgs. This preparation was completed in 1610 in a completely unexpected event. The religious fanatic Revolier stabbed Henry 4 with a dagger. This attempt was caused not only by the internal religious and political events of French society, but also by the intrigues of the Austrian Habsburgs.

Therefore, the preparation of France for an active offensive foreign policy and territorial expansion was disrupted for at least 10 years, because an inter-power was established in France, the young Louis 13, his mother regent. In fact, another Fronde has been hit - disagreements between the nobility, Protestant and Catholic. In general, this nobility tried to weaken the power of royal power.

Therefore, from 1610 to 1620, France sharply weakens its position and activity in the European arena.

Louis then becomes an adult. Most recently, they showed a film about how he regained power. He kills his mother's favorite and regains power. And after Cardinal Richelieu came to power in 1624, who ruled the country together with the king, until 1642, France was gaining momentum to strengthen the absolute monarchy and strengthen state power.

This policy met with support from the third estate, from the growing population of cities, crafts, trade, the bourgeoisie and the untitled nobility. Richelieu managed to pacify the titled nobility at least for a while.

In foreign policy expansionist sentiments are again intensifying, and France resumes preparations for the struggle for the establishment of French hegemony, at least in the continental part of Europe.

The opponents of the French are the Spaniards, Austria, to some extent England. But this is where qualitative changes begin. French politics, because both Henry 4 and Cardinal Richelieu preached an active foreign policy.

Henry 4 believed that there are territories where they speak French, there are territories where they speak Spanish, German, then Henry 4 believed that French-speaking territories should be part of his kingdom. Those lands where German dialects are spoken should go to the Holy Roman Empire, and Spanish - to the Spanish kingdom.

Under Richelieu, this moderate expansionism is replaced by an immoderate one. Richelieu believed that the purpose of my being in power was to revive Gaul and return to the Gauls the borders intended for them by nature itself.

Remember the period of antiquity. Gaul is a rather huge amorphous region, and the return of the boundaries intended for it meant that the French, at least in the east, should go to the Rhine and include the left bank of the Rhine together with the Netherlands in the new Gaul, and go to the Pyrenees in order to expand the territory in the west and south countries.

Thus, put France in the place of Gaul and, according to Richelieu's idea, form a new Gaul. This unbridled expansion was naturally presented in a shell, camouflaged in beautiful expressions: safe borders, natural frontiers, restoration of historical justice, and so on.

Beneath these sentiments lay certain economic, social, and demographic problems in France. The fact is that France was the most populated country. This is at least 15 million people. And of course, living space is required.

Since the 16th century, as a result of the VGO and other changes, France has entered a phase of rapid economic growth, and not just an economy, but the creation of a market economy, which requires and is the basis of expansion. On the one hand, a powerful economy allows for an active foreign policy and offensive policy, and on the other hand, this economy requires new markets. The construction of the French colonial empire begins in a new light, in India, etc.

Early 17th century France and the French are faced with the problem of a new rise of the Habsburgs. We know that in the 16th century the Habsburgs were weakened. Since the beginning of the 16th century, the memory of these defeats and the influence of the factors that led to the weakening of the Habsburgs have been weakening to some extent. These factors are 5:

1) The desire to create a universalist, unified monarchy in Europe. This aspiration suffers a crushing defeat in 1556. Charles 1 (Charles 5) goes to the monastery, his possessions are divided into the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs and the Spanish branch. Those. this state is falling apart. This is the first factor that led to the weakening of the Habsburgs in the middle-second half of the 16th century.

2) The fight against the rebellious Netherlands, the Dutch revolution. Dates are different. From the iconoclastic uprising to 1609, the conclusion of a 12-year truce. Or the end of the Anglo-Dutch wars by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. In fact, the revolution lasted about 80 years. 3 generations of Dutch revolutionaries fought for the ideals of the revolution. This factor weakened the power of the Habsburgs.

3) The struggle against the dominance of the Habsburgs within the Holy Roman Empire. Moreover, not only Protestant rulers fought, such as the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, but also Catholic rulers such as the Duke of Bavaria, who believed that a weak emperor was better than a strong one.

4) Anglo-Spanish rivalry on the seas. The defeat of the Great Armada, the largest fleet in the history of the 16th century in 1588. These wars at sea in the 17th century, after the change of dynasty in England, the arrival of the Stuarts, are weakening, because the Stuarts are trying on the one hand to compete with Spain, and on the other hand to establish normal relations, to conclude a dynastic alliance in order to descend not only by war, but and dynastic diplomatic relations.

5) The rivalry between the two branches of the Habsburgs, Austrian and Spanish, for supremacy in the House of Habsburg on the one hand, and secondly for establishing their influence both in southern Germany and in the Italian lands, which mostly went to the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs.

These 5 factors that divided the Habsburgs and weakened in the 16th century, these factors cease to operate in the 17th century, or weaken.

And there is a desire to connect these 2 branches through a dynastic marriage and unite the broken state again into a single monarchy.

As you understand, these death plans are similar for many European countries. For the same France, the restoration of the power and unity of the Habsburgs means that the nightmare of the 16th century is reborn, these Habsburg pincers, from the east and from the west, which threatened to crush France, and France felt like between a rock and a hard place.

The strengthening of the Habsburgs is facilitated by a factor that is often underestimated in our literature: this is the weakening of the Ottoman threat by the end of the 16th century.

1573 - 4th Venetian-Turkish war.

1609 - the 6th Austro-Turkish war ends and also land wars for 10 years, the threat to Austria and Hungary weakens. This means that the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs have freed up a resource and can direct it to other areas of their foreign policy, i.e. send their forces against France and other European countries.

This is how the international situation changes in the early-first half of the 17th century.

The threat of the strengthening of the Habsburgs, and they are orthodox Catholics, no less than the Pope, and the threat of a revival of Catholic reaction, i.e. counter-reformation, the onset of the corresponding inquisition and the revision of the results of the Reformation in religious, social, political, property terms - it was a very serious threat at the beginning of the 17th century. And this threat was directed against a number of states.

First of all, for the German Protestant lands and cities of the Hansa, the victory and strengthening of the Habsburgs was like death. Why? Because then it was necessary to return to the Catholic Church everything that they had taken away from it during the years of the Reformation. But this would not have been limited, but there would have been an inquisition, bonfires, prisons, gallows, etc.

The same would have been true for the insurgent Netherlands, who, up to 1609, were conducting military operations against the Spaniards. Then both of them fizzled out, and in 1609 they concluded a 12-year truce or the Peace of Antwerp until 1621.

Even Protestant Denmark could not agree with the strengthening of the Habsburgs. Because the Danes considered themselves the heirs of the weakened Hansa, they believed that Denmark should regain control over the trade routes in the North and Baltic Seas. Accordingly, the increase in the territory of the Danish kingdom at the expense of the North German lands was always welcomed by the Danes.

Sweden - Sweden was ruled by a talented monarch, a reformer, Gustav 2 August. He constantly waged wars with his neighbors Russia, Poland. Its goal is to establish Sweden's dominance in the Baltic region, to take control of the coast, all major ports and estuaries of navigable rivers in the Baltic in order to control profitable trade in the North Sea, to turn the Baltic into an inland Swedish lake. To saddle (control) trade meant to impose trade with its duties, taxes, so that Sweden could live comfortably through the exploitation of this trade, increase its economic, political and military power. Therefore, for Sweden, the strengthening of the Habsburgs was dangerous and unprofitable.

England. The position of Protestant England was more complex, not so definite. On the one hand, for England, as a Protestant country, the threat of the restoration of Catholicism, the counter-reformation was unacceptable. In addition, England continued to be a potentially dangerous rival of the Catholic countries ... Therefore, the strengthening of the Habsburgs in the Mediterranean or the Atlantic was not included in the plans of the British. Therefore, the British tried to harm them wherever they could, and supported all the anti-Habsburg forces.

Riots in the Netherlands, unrest in the Holy Roman Empire, England gladly supported.

On the other hand, another factor acted on the British. The Dutch and French competed with the English crown in shipping. Therefore, there was no particular reason for the British to get involved in this conflict either. And they sought to pursue such a policy that the opposing pro-Habsburg forces and the Angty-Habsburg forces, without the active participation of England in hostilities, would exhaust each other, and the British would benefit from this. Therefore, England sometimes took an indecisive position and sought to minimize its participation in the European struggle during the 30 Years' War.

The main epicenter of the arena of the future all-European war, which we know as the 30-year war, 1618-1648, was Germany, the Holy Roman Empire. This is the main theater of war for the opposing sides. What are these sides?

In the early 1610s, 2 blocks were formed.

1 block Habsburg, which included the Catholic princes of Germany, Spain and Austria. Accordingly, this coalition was actively supported by the throne of St. Peter, this is the Pope, who at some moments also participated in this war, and the Commonwealth, which waged its wars, but dreamed of reuniting through the German lands ..., to get direct access to the Austrian lands, to receive the support of European catholic monarchs.

Anti-Habsburg bloc. If the Catholic forces supported the Habsburgs, accordingly, the Protestants were opponents of both the Catholic princes and the Habsburgs, Spanish and Austrian. Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Catholic France. The anti-Hasburg bloc was also strongly supported by Russia, to a large extent by England (before the revolution), and Holland. Holland did not formally enter into any agreements on military alliances, but from 1609 and from 1621 there were wars between the Dutch and the Spaniards until 1648. And these wars became, as it were, an integral part of this 30-year war.

Germany became the main theater of operations, the focus of the pan-European crisis. Why? First of all, the geographical factor. The country is terribly fragmented: 300 medium, large principalities, 1.5 thousand small possessions, imperial cities. Everyone is fighting with each other like a cat and a dog. Accordingly, it is a pleasure for hired troops to walk, rob, and fight in this territory.

Secondly, the Holy Roman Empire is the patrimony of the Austrian Habsburgs, who tried to establish the triumph of the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church and consolidate their power on this territory.

Germany experienced during the 16th and early 17th centuries a period of economic, social, and political decline. The country was fragmented according to the religious peace of 1555. The Augsturg religious world played a huge role in weakening the German lands and expanding the rivalry of the German princes.

Besides unsuccessful attempt early bourgeois revolution led to the weakening of the forces that advocated the renewal of German society. This means the creation of a market economy, the development of market bourgeois-capitalist relations and the strengthening of the forces that were for the conservation of these relations, the preservation of the old order: feudalism, Catholicism.

The last factor is the WGO and the changes in the trade and economy of Europe to which they led, the displacement of the main trade routes. This led to German states, which flourished in the 14th century-early 16th century, they lost the impetus for their development. Accordingly, the handicraft and manufacturing economy fell into decay, the urban economy fell into decay. And this means a reduction in the market for agricultural. products and the decline of the overall economy of the country. And in conditions of decline, tendencies towards conservatism triumph; not the development of agriculture along the market path, but the commutation of agriculture, a return to the old feudal rails.

The political and religious struggle within the Holy Roman Empire intensified by the beginning of the 17th century under Emperor Rudolf 2 of Habsburg (1576-1612). Under him, the prerequisites for a future pan-European conflict were outlined. First of all, the Catholic Church and the Jesuits under Rudolf 2 went on the offensive from the beginning of the 17th century in order to change the fragile balance of religious and political forces established by the Augsburg Religious Peace of 1555.

This threat forces the Protestant rulers to rally. And by 1608, create a Protestant or Evangelical union headed by the ruler (elector) of the Palatinate, Frederick 5 of the Palatinate.

In response to this, in 1609, the Catholic princes created the Catholic League, headed by the Duke of Bavaria, Elector Maximilian (Max) of Bavaria.

These 2 leagues start their own troops, their own treasury, their own coin, conduct completely independent external relations. The formation of both religious and political groups in Germany by 1608-1609 means that the struggle on the territory of the German lands is entering a decisive phase. But Elector Frederick of the Palatinate is guided by France in foreign policy, by Henry 4 of Bourbon, although he is a Catholic. With his support, he is trying to resist the pressure of Rudolf 2 of Habsburg, the pressure of the Spaniards and Austrians. At the same time, he is married to the daughter of James 1 Stuart, i.e. is his son-in-law, and is oriented to some extent to England.

Max of Bavaria relies on the Spaniards and the Austrian Habsburgs.

However, the conflict by 1610 nevertheless does not receive its development. The reasons:

The fact is that the main participants in the future conflict are not yet ready for war.

The Spaniards until 1609 are busy suppressing the revolution in the Netherlands. They are exhausted by this war and are not able to immediately enter into a new war. Although Philip 3 is in contact with the Austrian Habsburgs, supports Bavaria, the Catholic League, but cannot start a war.

1610 Armagnac kills Henri (Henry) 4 of Bourbon and therefore France leaves active world politics for decades, as civil strife and the weakening of royal power take place there.

England, which is in principle interested in a pan-European conflict that should destroy and weaken its competitors, also in the 1610s, James 1 Stuart pursues such a policy: on the one hand, he supports the anti-Habsburg Protestant forces in Europe, and on the other hand, he tries to agree on dynastic marriage with the Spanish Habsburgs. Therefore, he is also not entirely interested in this conflict.

Sweden, Russia are also busy with their own affairs in Poland and the Baltics. The Poles undertook an unsuccessful campaign against Moscow in 1617-18 (Smoot, False Dmitry).

Those. until 1618, all the countries of Europe are busy with their own affairs.

The first period of this 30-year war was called the Bohemian-Pfalian. 1618-1624. The main events took place on the territory of the Palatinate and the Czech Republic. Both sides, both the Habsburg and anti-Habsburg supporters, proved to be quite aggressive forces that sought to weaken each other, to wrest a fatter piece from each other.

The fact is that the Czech Republic was included in the Habsburg Empire in 1526. This is the active phase peasant war, Reformation. Ferdinand of Habsburg, who became the Czech king, promised the Czechs when the Czech Republic was included in the Habsburg Austrian Empire the preservation of religious freedoms, the renunciation of the persecution of Protestants, and the preservation of liberty and self-government of both the Czech cities and the Czech kingdom as a whole.

But promises are made by politicians in order not to fulfill them later, but to think about how to get around them. Subsequent development led to the fact that all these liberties were crushed and reduced. Therefore, claims from the growing cities of the Czech population grew. And the Czech Republic, the Czech cities were the most prosperous region of the Habsburg Austrian state.

By the beginning of the 17th century, the ruler of the Palatinate, Frederick 5, begins to flirt with the Czechs, begins to incite them to riots and promises to create an anti-Habsburg alliance consisting of the Palatinate, the Czech Republic, Holland, the Swiss cantons, the Venetian Republic, etc. Those. create an anti-Habsburg coalition that will help the Czechs free themselves from the influence of the power of the Catholic Habsburgs.

Under these conditions, Rudolph in 1611 was forced to confirm all existing liberties and concessions to the Czechs. And what's more, he received the Letter of Majesty. The essence of this charter was that since the Czechs had accumulated many complaints against Austrian officials who did not fulfill their obligations, violated the rights of Czechs, the liberties of cities, then we establish a government consisting of 10 deputies, called lieutenants, who govern on behalf of the Austrian monarch Czech Republic. But the Czechs, for their part, elect their proxies - controllers, who must monitor both the observance of the civil rights of the Czechs and religious freedoms and the prevention of persecution of the Protestant Czech population. It looks like a dual power. On the one hand, the official authorities, on the other hand, the Czech controllers.

Dual power does not exist in any country for a long time, because some kind of scale begins to pull. These 10 lieutenants, deputies of the Austrian monarch, gradually begin to bribe controllers, to force cooperation. And the four most incorruptible were declared opposition and tried to expel.

As a result, on May 5, 1618, an uprising broke out in Prague, the territory, the Prague Castle, was seized, and two of the most irreconcilable lieutenants were thrown out of the windows. This uprising thus begins the era of the 30 Years' War.

The Czechs are quickly creating their own government, which is building up its own armed forces, its own treasury. They begin to call for rebellion other Slavic lands, these are Moravia, upper and lower Lusatia, and Silesia in order to form their own association within the Austrian Empire, which would then break out of the orbit of the Habsburgs' attraction and create an independent state.

This is unacceptable, although the Czechs are counting on the help of the German princes, the same Palatinate. This leads to the final split in Europe. The Austrian Habsburgs quickly find common ground, agreements with the Spaniards, and hire Spanish troops. The Bavarian ruler Max sends his troops under the command of the talented commander Baron Tilly.

Habsburg is deprived of the Czech throne, and Frederick 5 of the Palatinate is proclaimed Czech king. This leads to the beginning of serious hostilities on the territory of the Czech Republic, Moravia. Catholic troops, Spanish troops, Austrian Habsburg troops invade, and the 30 Years' War begins.

The preponderance of forces is on the side of the Habsburg coalition. But in the end, the German Protestant princes enter into an agreement with the Catholic princes of Germany, according to which the status quo is maintained in the German lands, and the Catholic troops get a free hand to operate in the Slavic lands (the Germans do not feel sorry for the Slavs).

As a result, on November 8, 1620, the Czech army was defeated in the battle of Belaya Gora. The failed Czech king, ruler of the Palatinate, flees to Brandenburg. By 1624, Catholic troops, these are Spanish mercenaries, the troops of the Catholic League under the leadership of Max of Bavaria and the troops of Emperor Wallenstein themselves capture all the rebellious Slavic lands.

As a result, a regime of terror is established on the territory of the Czech Republic and Moravia. All opponents of the Habsburgs are exterminated. Their property is being seized. Protestant worship and churches are prohibited. A fully Catholic reaction is established.

From that moment to this day, the Czech Republic is a Catholic country.

The Spaniards invade the Palatinate and also capture and ravage it.

In 1625-29, the second stage of the 30-year war begins. It is called the Danish period.

The essence of this period is that the position of the Protestant camp in the German lands becomes simply desperately difficult. All of central Germany is occupied, northern Germany is next.

All this leads to the fact that Denmark, which itself is striving for territorial expansion in northern Germany, and is trying to take both the North Sea and the Baltic under its control, cannot come to terms with the triumph of the Catholic Spaniards and the Austrian Habsburgs. She receives subsidies from England and France. France is not yet ready for war. And Denmark enters the war. Therefore, the second period is called the Danish period.

The Austrian army under Wallenstein is largely mercenary, operating thanks to the Wallenstein system. The essence of this system was that the 30-year war is basically, with the exception of the Swedish armies, these are mercenary troops. If you have money, then you have hired troops. If there is no money...

Denmark enters the war. On the one hand, it is supported by Wallenstein, on the other hand, Baron Tilly, who commands the troops of the Catholic League. The Austrians are creating a powerful mercenary army that operates according to the Wallenstein system. The essence of this system was that the troops had to be paid, as a rule, there was not enough money in the treasury. Wallenstein's system lies in the fact that the troops where they lodge, at the expense of this territory, live. Either they rob the local population, or they feed in a civilized way through withdrawals, indemnities, taxes. This army of Wallenstein, like locusts, passes through all of southern and central Germany, enters northern, defeats the Danish troops. As a result, by the spring of 1629, both the Protestant princes and Denmark are on the verge of final defeat.

On March 6, 1629, all this forces the Protestant princes and Denmark to conclude a difficult peace for them. According to this world, Denmark refuses to participate in any German and withdraws its troops outside the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. All the ambitions of the Danes are unfulfilled. Wallenstein is given as a gift the Duchy of Mecklenburg in northern Germany, which is a springboard for further Austrian aggression both against Denmark and against the north German territories.

On March 6, 1629, the Protestant princes were forced to agree to the introduction of a restorative edict. Restitution means restoration, return of some position. The essence of this edict of March 6, 1629 is that all the rights of the Catholic Church, its lands, its property, which it lost as a result of the Reformation, are returned back to the old owners, monasteries, the Catholic Church. Plus, all the bishops, archbishops of the Catholic Church are restoring their not only ecclesiastical, but also secular power within the Holy Roman Empire.

This biggest success of the Habsburg coalition by the spring of 1629 to some extent plays a cruel joke on these forces, because the rulers always look at their commanders as possible competitors. So the Habsburgs looked at this Wallenstein, one of the greatest generals, with suspicion. Therefore, in 1630 he was retired.

In 1630, the next, Swedish stage of this war begins. 1630-1635 years.

The point is that the Peace of Lübeck and the Edict of Restoration opened up opportunities for the realization of the political plans of the Habsburgs to create a universalist monarchy in Europe and establish the political hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. Therefore, the states that opposed the Habsburgs faced a real threat that had to be confronted.

In 1628, Richelieu takes La Rochelle, turns the head of the Huguenots (Protestants) in France. But France does not yet want to enter the war. Therefore, Richelieu decided to use as a weapon of war the young energetic monarch King Gustavus Adolf - indeed one of the most talented monarchs of the 17th century, a reformer and a major military commander. France provides financial assistance. With this money, Gustav Adolf is reforming his army. Its essence is as follows: before Gustavus Adolf, Catholic troops fought in huge regiments. Before Gustavus Adolphus, there were mercenary troops who fought when they were paid. Therefore, the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus introduces a regular army, based on national armies. Not mercenaries, but a recruiting kit. They have a higher degree of consciousness.

Further, he is reforming the Swedish army, which consists in the introduction of linear progressive tactics. In this army, the main emphasis is on firearms. Swedish troops are being equipped with more powerful artillery, including field artillery for the first time. Shelves line up...

As a result, in 1630, Swedish troops landed in the north of Germany, quickly captured it, entered Central Germany, into Saxony. They conclude allied relations with the Saxon duke, and inflict 2 most powerful defeats on the troops of the Habsburg coalition.

September 7, 1631 Battle of Breitenfeld. The army commanded by Baron Tilly is defeated.

However, the battle of Lutzen turned out to be fatal for Gustav 2 Adolf. He died. Historians debate how this happened. The Austrians fled, the Swedes began to pursue them. The king, at the head of a small detachment, rode in the hope of capturing one of the prominent military leaders. Either he ran into a more powerful detachment, or he was slaughtered by his own military, who were bribed.

After this tragic victory, the affairs of the Swedes are upset, discipline is falling. The Swedish army was already defeated in September 1634 in the battle of Nervingen, and the Swedes were losing their positions in Germany. They retreat to the North Sea and the Polish border.

In 1635 the Swedish stage ends.

The last stage from 1635 to 1648 was called the Franco-Swedish.

France concludes the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Sweden, which is gradually joined by other states: Holland, Mantua, Savoy, Venice. The preponderance of the forces of the anti-Habsburg coalition is gradually formed, which begins to affect the course of hostilities.

On May 19, 1643, in the battle of Rokura, Prince Condé actually destroys, leads the army of the Habsburgs and German princes to flight.

And the Swedes on November 2, 1645, in the battle of Jankov, also defeat the Austrian army.

As a result, in 1846, the Swedish and French armies unite and hostilities are transferred to the territory of the Czech Republic and Austria. In fact, the winners of the Swedes and the French can divide the territory of the Holy Roman Empire among themselves. They threaten to storm Vienna. All this forces the Austrians and the German Catholic princes to enter into peace negotiations in order to end the war.

France is also interested in ending the war. All this leads to the fact that at the negotiations in the two cities of Osnabrück and Münster on October 24, 1648, 2 peace treaties which we know collectively as the Treaty of Westphalia.

Sweden concludes a treaty in Osnabrück between Sweden, Holy Roman Emperor, i.e. Austria, and Protestant and Catholic princes. And the Treaty of Münster is concluded between France and Holland and their opponents. The Spaniards do not sign the treaty in Munster, they continue this war for many more years.

The main significance of the Treaty of Westphalia is that:

Sweden receives the northern coast of Germany, control over all major ports and estuaries of navigable rivers. As a result of the 30-year war, Sweden began to dominate the Baltic and became part of the Holy Roman Empire.

France receives territorial increments: upper and lower Alsace, recognition of its rights to the previously captured bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, which were captured back in 1552. This is a powerful springboard for further advancement to the east.

Under the Treaty of Münster, Spain and the whole world in 1648 finally de facto and de jure recognize the independence of the Netherlands.

The Peace of Westphalia ends the 10th anniversary of the Spanish-Dutch Wars started in 1572 to 1648.

Holland also receives some territorial increments.

Their allies, Brandenburg, also receive territorial increments and compensations in Germany.

The Franco-Spanish War continues until 1659, i.e. 11 more years, and ends with the signing of the Peace of the Pyrenees, according to which France expands its southern border to the Pyrenees, and in the east it receives important counties: part of Flanders, and Artois.

The Peace of Westphalia and the 30 Years' War are of great importance for the countries of Europe. First of all, during the 30 years of the war, the population of Germany decreased from 16 to 10 million people. This is a demographic disaster. This population was restored only by the middle of the 18th century. In some territories, such as Bavaria, Thuringia, Brandenburg, population losses amounted to 50%. In other principalities, 60-70% of the population was destroyed or died as a result of famine and epidemics.

1618. The Margraviate of Brandenburg seizes the Duchy of Prussia and becomes the Brandenburg-Prussian state, which further builds up its muscles.

The results of the 30-year war: the demographic blow to Germany. Economic decline and ruin of cities and agriculture.

Under these conditions, conservative tendencies to return to feudal property and strengthen feudal rather than early bourgeois exploitation of both the urban and rural peasant population triumph. Most importantly, the fragmentation of Germany remained until the middle of the 19th century. The disunity of the German nation.

As a result of the 30-year war and the Peace of Westphalia, 2 states triumph: Sweden, which is turning into the largest power in the Baltic and subordinating the Baltic region to its influence. And France is getting stronger too. From the middle of the 18th century, it begins to claim the role of hegemon in European politics.

2 new states appear: the Netherlands or the United Provinces and Switzerland, the Swiss cantons. These 2 states leave the Holy Roman Empire and become independent independent states.

Russia's participation in the 30 Years' War lies in the fact that Russia did not directly participate in the 30-year war, although the wars that were fought between Poland and Russia took away strength from the Catholic bloc.

Besides. Russia indirectly participated in this war, helping countries that were part of the anti-Habsburg coalition. Until 1625, Russia sold strategic goods to them at low prices: bread and saltpeter. Until 1625, the main flow of bread and saltpeter went to England and Holland. From 1625 to 1629, Denmark was supported in the same way. Since 1630 - Sweden.

Dates:

30 year war. 1618-1648

Stage 1. Czech-Palatinate. 1618-1624.

Stage 2. Danish. 1625-1629. Ended with the Peace of Lübeck, Restorative Edict March 6, 1629. Defeat of Denmark, Protestant princes.

Stage 3. Swedish. 1630-1635. 2 battles: at Breitenfeld on September 7, 1631. The defeat of the troops of the Catholic League under the command of Baron Tilly. Battle of Lützen (Saxony, near Leipzig) November 16, 1632. The death of Gustav 2 Adolf.

Stage 4. French-Swedish. 1635-1648. The battle of Rokua, the troops of the Prince of Condé won on May 19, 1643. The victory of the Swedes in the battle of Jankov on November 2, 1645.

The French frontier was advancing towards the Pyrenees. This treaty contained the seeds of future wars that Louis 14 waged.



Albert von Wallenstein - commander of the Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was the first all-European war. One of the most cruel, stubborn, bloody and longest in the history of the Old World. It began as a religious one, but gradually turned into a dispute for hegemony in Europe, territories and trade routes. It was conducted by the house of Habsburg, the Catholic principalities of Germany on the one hand, Sweden, Denmark, France, German Protestants on the other

Causes of the Thirty Years' War

— Counter-Reformation: an attempt by the Catholic Church to win back from Protestantism the positions lost during the Reformation
— The desire of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation and Spain, for hegemony in Europe
— The fears of France, which saw in the policy of the Habsburgs an infringement of their national interests
The desire of Denmark and Sweden to monopoly control the maritime trade routes of the Baltic
— Selfish aspirations of numerous petty European monarchs, who hoped to snatch something for themselves in a general dump

Members of the Thirty Years' War

— Habsburg bloc - Spain and Portugal, Austria; Catholic League - some of the Catholic principalities and bishoprics of Germany: Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Cologne, Trier, Mainz, Würzburg
— Denmark, Sweden; Evangelical or Protestant union: Electorate of the Palatinate, Württemberg, Baden, Kulmbach, Ansbach, Palatinate-Neuburg, Landgraviate of Hesse, Electorate of Brandenburg and several imperial cities; France

Stages of the Thirty Years' War

• Bohemian-Palatinate period (1618-1624)
• Danish period (1625-1629)
• Swedish period (1630-1635)
• Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648)

course of the Thirty Years' War. Briefly

“There was a mastiff, two collies and a St. Bernard, some bloodhounds and Newfoundlands, a beagle, a French poodle, a bulldog, a few lapdogs and two mutts. They sat patiently and thoughtfully. But then a young lady came in, leading a fox terrier on a chain; she left him between a bulldog and a poodle. The dog sat down and looked around for a minute. Then, without a hint of any reason, he grabbed the poodle by the front paw, jumped over the poodle and attacked the collie, (then) grabbed the bulldog by the ear ... (Then) and all the other dogs opened hostilities. The big dogs fought among themselves; small dogs also fought with each other, and in their free moments they bit big dogs by the paws.(Jerome K. Jerome "Three in One Boat")

Europe 17th century

Something similar happened in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century. The Thirty Years' War began as a seemingly autonomous Czech uprising. But at the same time, Spain fought with the Netherlands, in Italy they sorted out the relations between the Duchy of Mantua, Monferrato and Savoy, in 1632-1634 Muscovy and the Commonwealth clashed, from 1617 to 1629 there were three major clashes between Poland and Sweden, Poland also fought with Transylvania, that in turn called on Turkey for help. In 1618, an anti-republican conspiracy was uncovered in Venice ...

• March 1618 - Czech Protestants appealed to Holy Roman Emperor Matthew with a demand to stop the persecution of people on religious grounds
• 1618, May 23 - in Prague, the participants of the Protestant Congress committed violence against the representatives of the emperor (the so-called "Second Prague defenestration")
• 1618, summer - palace coup in Vienna. Matthew on the throne was replaced by Ferdinand of Styria, a fanatical Catholic
• 1618, autumn - the imperial army entered the Czech Republic

  Movements of Protestant and imperial armies in the Czech Republic, Moravia, the German lands of Hesse, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saxony, sieges and the capture of cities (Ceske Budejovice, Pilsen, Palatinate, Bautzen, Vienna, Prague, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Bergen-op -Zoom), battles (at the village of Sablat, on the White Mountain, at Wimpfen, at Hoechst, at Stadtlon, at Fleurus), diplomatic maneuvers were characteristic of the first stage of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1624). It ended with the victory of the Habsburgs. The Czech Protestant uprising failed, Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate, and Spain captured the Electoral Palatinate, securing a foothold for another war with the Netherlands

• 1624, June 10 - Treaty of Compiègne between France, England and the Netherlands on an alliance against the imperial house of Habsburg
• 1624, July 9 - Denmark and Sweden joined the Treaty of Compiegne, fearing the growth of Catholic influence in northern Europe
• 1625, spring - Denmark opposed the imperial army
• 1625, April 25 - Emperor Ferdinand appointed Albrech von Wallenstein as commander of his army, who suggested that the emperor feed his mercenary army at the expense of the population of the theater of operations
• 1826, April 25 - Wallenstein's army at the battle of Dessau defeated the Protestant troops of Mansfeld
• 1626, August 27 - The Catholic army of Tilly defeated the troops of the Danish king Christian IV in the battle of the village of Lutter
• 1627, spring - Wallenstein's army moved to the north of Germany and captured it, including the Danish peninsula of Jutland
• 1628, September 2 - at the Battle of Wolgast, Wallenstein once again defeated Christian IV, who was forced to withdraw from the war

  On May 22, 1629, a peace treaty was signed in Lübeck between Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire. Wallenstein returned the occupied lands to Christian, but obtained a promise not to interfere in German affairs. This ended the second phase of the Thirty Years' War.

• 1629, March 6 - the emperor issued an Edict on restitution. fundamentally curtailed the rights of Protestants
• 1630, June 4 - Sweden entered the Thirty Years' War
• 1630, September 13 - Emperor Ferdinand, who feared the strengthening of Wallenstein, dismissed him
• 1631, January 23 - an agreement between Sweden and France, according to which the Swedish king Gustav Adolf pledged to keep a 30,000-strong army in Germany, and France, represented by Cardinal Richelieu, to take on the costs of maintaining it
• 1631, May 31 - The Netherlands made an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, pledging to invade Spanish Flanders and subsidize the king's army
• 1532, April - the emperor again called Wallenstein to the service

  The third, Swedish, stage of the Thirty Years' War was the most fierce. Protestants and Catholics had already mixed up in the armies for a long time, no one remembered how it all began. The main driving motive of the soldiers was profit. Because they killed each other without mercy. By storming the fortress of Neu-Brandenburg, the emperor's mercenaries completely killed his garrison. In response, the Swedes destroyed all the prisoners during the capture of Frankfurt an der Oder. Magdeburg was completely burned, tens of thousands of its inhabitants died. On May 30, 1632, the commander-in-chief of the imperial army, Tilly, was killed during the battle at the Rhine Fortress; on November 16, the Swedish king Gustav Adolf was killed in the battle of Lützen; on February 25, 1634, Wallenstein was shot dead by his own guards. In 1630-1635, the main events of the Thirty Years' War unfolded in Germany. Swedish victories alternated with defeats. The princes of Saxony, Brandenburg, and other Protestant principalities supported either the Swedes or the emperor. The conflicting parties did not have the strength to bend fortune to their own advantage. As a result, a peace treaty was signed between the emperor and the Protestant princes of Germany in Prague, according to which the execution of the Edict of Restitution was postponed for 40 years, the imperial army was formed by all the rulers of Germany, who lost the right to conclude separate alliances among themselves

• 1635, May 30 - Peace of Prague
• 1635, May 21 - France entered the Thirty Years' War to help Sweden, fearing the strengthening of the House of Habsburg
• 1636, May 4 - the victory of the Swedish troops over the allied imperial army in the battle of Wittstock
• 1636, December 22 - the son of Ferdinand II Ferdinand III became emperor
• 1640, December 1 - Coup in Portugal. Portugal regained independence from Spain
• 1642, December 4 - Cardinal Richilier, the "soul" of French foreign policy, died
• 1643, May 19 - Battle of Rocroix, in which the French troops defeated the Spaniards, which marked the decline of Spain as a great power

  The last, Franco-Swedish stage of the Thirty Years' War had the characteristic features of a world war. Military operations were conducted throughout Europe. The duchies of Savoy, Mantua, the Venetian Republic, and Hungary intervened in the war. fighting were conducted in Pomerania, Denmark, Austria, still in the German lands, in the Czech Republic, Burgundy, Moravia, the Netherlands, in the Baltic Sea. In England, supporting the Protestant states financially, broke out. A popular uprising raged in Normandy. Under these conditions, in 1644, peace negotiations began in the cities of Westphalia (a region in northwestern Germany) Osnabrück and Münster. Representatives of Sweden, the German princes and the emperor met in Osanbrück, and the ambassadors of the emperor, France, and the Netherlands met in Münster. Negotiations, the course of which was influenced by the results of incessant fighting, lasted 4 years