Joseph II - Tapir: Health and Agriculture. Joseph II - Tapir: Health and Agriculture Joseph 2 Austrian emperor reforms and results
When Maria Theresa died after a reign of forty years, she was succeeded in Austria by Joseph II, who reigned only incomplete ten years (1780-1790). He became emperor in Germany and co-ruler with his mother in Austria at the age of twenty-four (1765), when Frederick II was at the height of his power and glory. Even then, the young sovereign was an ardent admirer of the system of Frederick II, but the device German Empire doomed him to inactivity, and in Austria Maria Theresa was not very willing to listen to his advice. Joseph II was distinguished by a lively character and loved a restless, active life. He is early mastered the advanced ideas of his century, although he did not become, like Frederick II, a freethinker. An ardent supporter of religious tolerance, he almost quarreled with his mother, who did not even want to hear about the introduction of freedom of non-Catholic cults in Austria. In addition, Joseph II was distinguished by a real hatred of monasticism, and at the same time he already had before his eyes examples of how state power in Spain, Portugal and Naples fought against the privileges and domination of the clergy. In the peasant cause, he supported his mother, and if he reproached her for anything, it was only for insufficient decisiveness: he wanted the direct destruction of serfdom. In general, Joseph II was more strongly than Frederick II imbued with the reformist ideas of "enlightenment" and implemented them with much greater consistency when he reached power. Poorly knowing the history of the various lands that were under his scepter, he nevertheless considered it necessary to take into account their historical rights. He was brought up in the spirit of the rationalist philosophy of the 18th century, with its purely abstract idea of the state. Privileges of individual Habsburg regions seemed to him contrary to the common good of his state. Like Frederick II, he did not want to share power with anyone, he wanted to do everything himself and was in essence a great despot. The emperor rushed about with broad plans during foreign policy and at the same time he thought of redoing everything within his domain. The swiftness and abruptness with which he introduced his reforms made him a "revolutionary on the throne."
197. Reforms of Joseph II
In the field of estate relations, Joseph II planned to subordinate the nobles to the payment of taxes, took away their privileged position before the court, made public positions available to all estates, etc. Most of all he wanted to alleviate the situation of the peasants. In a number of measures for individual parts of the monarchy, he abolished the serfdom of the peasants, secured their land plots for them, reduced their duties in favor of the landowners, etc. Joseph II took care and about the cultural development of their peoples, having arranged something like a special ministry of public education, to which he entrusted the censorship of books taken away from the clergy. With particular sharpness he carried out his church reforms, and even the visit of Pope Pius VI to Vienna could not divert him from this policy, which his enemies called "Josephism." The promulgation of papal bulls was made dependent on the consent of the government; many cases that were previously decided by the pope were transferred to local bishops; monastic orders, dependent on the generals who lived in Rome, were subordinate to the local spiritual authorities. In addition, Joseph II destroyed hundreds of monasteries, confiscated their property and reduced the number of monks. Censorship and school were also taken away from the clergy, and the press received relative freedom. Joseph II also reformed special religious schools, which now had to train priests who were completely obedient to the state. In these educational establishments new manuals were introduced in the spirit of the ideas of the 18th century; in them, Catholicism was reduced mainly to one morality, and the omnipotence of the state was preached. According to Joseph II, future priests had to be, first of all, teachers of morality and government officials. Emperor touched even the cult, ordering to take out extra icons and statues of saints from churches and ordering to change some ceremonies. Here he already intruded directly into the realm of religion, although he himself was a supporter of religious tolerance and, at the very beginning of his reign, declared religious tolerance in his state. reform activity Joseph II spread to other aspects of life - to administration, legal proceedings, finances, etc. For example, he also undertook a revision of the laws, and under him the first part of the new "Joseph's Lawyer" was published. In administration, he strove for bureaucratic centralization, i. wanted to combine all his kingdoms (the Czech Republic and Hungary) and other hereditary principalities into a monotonous state. He replaced the historically established provinces with a completely arbitrary division into districts, and he wanted to replace the zemstvo ranks with bureaucratic offices. In this united monarchy, one language was supposed to dominate - German (in Hungary, instead of Latin, which was neutral for the diverse composition of its population).
198. Opposition to Joseph II
The reforms of Joseph II were met in all his possessions great displeasure. The common people, in whose defense much was done by Joseph II, either because of their backwardness could not support the government, or they themselves took the side of the enemies of Joseph II as a result of his measures regarding religion. More than anything the clergy and nobles were indignant at the emperor. In two areas, in Belgium and Hungary- there were still medieval estate constitutions, which Joseph II, who did not recognize any historical rights, openly violated. This led to direct rebellion Belgium, where the clergy opposed the church and school reforms of the emperor. In Hungary, too, an uprising was being prepared, led by the nobility, irritated by the liberation of the peasants. Belgium and Hungary directly threatened to fall away from the dynasty, and on his deathbed, Joseph II began to cancel his reforms in order to save the integrity of the monarchy. He did not want to sacrifice only two of his orders for anything - the edict on religious tolerance and the abolition of the serfdom of the peasants. After Joseph II, his brother Leopold II (1790–1792) went to all the concessions, and the old order completely triumphed in Austria.
The eldest son of the imp. Franz Stephen of Lorraine and the Archduchess of Austria, cor. Hungary and Bohemia Maria Theresa. The so-called policy course is connected with I. enlightened absolutism (reforms in the field of state. religious policy, state administration, justice, health care, etc.), called iozefinism.
Genus. during a difficult period for the Habsburg dynasty. After his death in 1740, imp. Charles VI, who left no male heirs, on the basis of the Pragmatic Sanction, power passed to his daughter Maria Theresa, in connection with which Prussia and its allies began the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). Received I. education was not systematic, a great influence on the formation of his views had an independent reading of the works of thinkers of the Enlightenment, which caused dissatisfaction with his mother imp. Maria Theresa, who considered the ideas of the Enlightenment extremely dangerous. I. married twice: in 1760, in order to bring the Habsburg and Bourbon houses closer together, at the behest of Maria Theresa and Chancellor V. A. Kaunitz, he married the Duchess of Parma Isabella († 1763), and in 1765, the Duchess of Bavaria Maria Joseph (no heirs left). After the death of his father from 18 Aug. 1765 I., by the will of his mother, was her co-ruler, but almost all areas of the state. management remained under the control of Maria Theresa, which prevented I. from showing independence in government. The influence of I. on the state. things were minimal, most often he only carried out the will of his mother. Nevertheless, following the ideas of the Enlightenment, I. achieved in 1776 from Maria Theresa the abolition of torture in legal proceedings. The unwillingness of the mother to reckon with the opinion of I. in governing the state often led to tension in relations between them. In an effort to avoid confrontation with the Empress, I. incognito (under the name of Count Falkenstein) made long journeys: he was in Silesia (1769), in Italy (1769), in France (1777), in Russia (1780), and also in different parts empire, where he got acquainted with the state of affairs, problems and needs of society. In 1780 he met with the Russian imp. Catherine II Alekseevna in Mogilev to develop a common anti-Turkish policy. It is generally accepted that these trips, during which I. got acquainted with the experience of the state. management in other countries, influenced his future rule, determining the course of reform.
After the death of the imp. Maria Theresa (1780) I. began to rule independently, continuing the transformations begun by her, but his reforms were more radical and often contradictory. I. carried out reforms in the field of state. management, economics and social relations. In the field of state management I. faced problems associated with the structure of the empire, each part of which retained its own authorities in the absence of a centralized system of government, a single army, a taxation system, a monetary unit, etc. Attempts to centralize and unify the state, undertaken imp. Charles VI and Maria Theresa, were completed by I. reforms of the royal chancellery, court chamber and financial management (including through the merger of 13 different regional institutions). The most important of the reforms is the reorganization of the state. administration of Hungary (1785), Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands (1787). In Hungary, I. sought to put the estates under his control, to put an end to the Hungarians. isolation and repeal the constitution. He liquidated the comitat system (regional autonomy) and divided the country into 10 adm. districts headed by commissioners. The emperor refused to be crowned Hungarian. the crown of St. Stefan (Istvan) and ordered her to be transported to Vienna, for which in Hungary he was called "the king in the hat."
In order to unify I. pursued a policy of Germanization of the multinational population of the empire, including made it German. the language is obligatory in office work (1784) on the territory of all lands subject to the Habsburgs, except for Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands, where ital. and French languages were recognized as "suitable" in the state. management. This reform aroused the dissatisfaction of the subjects and became one of the reasons for the uprisings at the end of the reign of Ivan. In the economy, the most important event was the abolition of serfdom, which made it possible for the peasants to choose their place of residence and make deals; landlords were forbidden to drive peasants off their allotments and obstruct their economic activities. However, the transfer of peasants to redemption payments depended on the desire of the landowner. As a result, corvee was abolished in Galicia only in 1786, and in Hungary in 1787. Like imp. Maria Theresa, in the economic sphere, I. followed the principles of mercantilism, restricting the import of foreign and encouraging the export of domestic goods, supporting the development of manufactories, including by providing benefits to Protestant entrepreneurs who moved to Austria from the Rhine region. and the Netherlands. Relig. the benefits also affected the Orthodox, who played an important role in Viennese trade, as well as the Jews, whose court needed financial capital. Realizing the ideas of the Enlightenment, the emperor opened charitable institutions, hospitals, shelters for the deaf and dumb. The economic and social reforms of India contributed to the modernization of the Habsburg empire.
The greatest resonance in the empire and abroad was caused by the course of religions conducted by I.. politics based on religious tolerance and affecting the Catholic. Church and other religions. communities in St. Roman Empire. Oct 13 In 1781, I. issued a “patent on religious tolerance” (Toleranzpatent), according to Krom, the privileged status of Catholics was preserved. Church, but Protestants (primarily Lutherans and Calvinists) and Orthodox were given the right to private religion. practice and free worship in prayer houses, as well as new norms for mixed marriages between Catholics and persons of other Christs. confessions. Jan 2 In 1782, I. issued a “patent on religious tolerance” in relation to Jews living in N. Austria (from 1789 the “patent” extended to other parts of the empire), giving Jews the opportunity to live in cities, acquire land, create national schools; the document abolished the wearing of special clothing by Jews, prescribed them to receive it. surnames. "Patents on religious tolerance" allowed non-Catholic. the population of the Habsburg monarchy to occupy the state. positions. Relig. I. policy, which had the main goal of subordinating the Catholic. Church needs of the state-va, complicated the relationship of the emperor with the Holy See. In 1782, the concerned religious. policy I. Pope Pius VI made a trip to Vienna, where he unsuccessfully tried to get the emperor to change the course against the Catholics. Churches. During the reign of I., the secularization of the property of some Catholics was carried out. monastic orders and mon-rays, the system of training and education of clerics was changed, orders were issued to hold services, the boundaries of bishoprics were streamlined, etc. (for more details, see the article Josephinism).
The emperor's foreign policy was not very successful. In alliance with Russia, I. conducted military operations against Ottoman Empire. The first operations in the Belgrade region ended in the defeat of the imp. army and the invasion of the Ottoman troops in the south. committees of Hungary. To the military failures of the emperor, an epidemic of malaria was added, which I.
Initially, the policy of I. met with support among different sections of the population, but the policy of Germanization and unification contributed to the beginning of the struggle for the equality of nations in the Habsburg monarchy, and the emergence of anti-absolutist movements. The end of I.'s reign coincided with a deep political crisis. Largely due to the dissatisfaction of religions. the policy of I. in 1789 in the Austrian Netherlands began the so-called. The Brabant Revolution resulted in the creation of an independent United States of Belgium. Hungary was on the verge of an uprising, the representatives of the Hungarians. The political elite and the ruling houses of Bavaria and Prussia were actively negotiating the overthrow of the Habsburgs. Started in 1789 French revolution contributed to the intensification of anti-absolutist speeches in various areas of the Habsburg empire. In an effort to save the situation and prevent a revolution in his possessions, I. annulled almost all of his decrees (except for the abolition of serfdom and "patents on religious tolerance"), promising to resume the work of the Hungarians. the National Assembly and return the crown of St. Stephen (Istvan) to Hungary. However, neither the preparation for the work of the National Assembly nor the return of the crown to Buda could restore order in Hungary. Throughout the country, the formation of armed detachments continued, Hung. regiments located in other parts of the empire returned to their homeland to protect it, negotiations continued on inviting a new dynasty to the throne. After the death of I. imp. Leopold II was able to restore the power of the Habsburgs in Belgium and put an end to the unrest in Hungary, preserving in the empire most of the reforms and transformations carried out by I..
Lit.: Mitrofanov P., von. Joseph II: Seine politische u. kulturelle Tatigkeit. W., 1910. 2 Bde; Kann R. A. Werden und Zerfall des Habsburgerreiches. Graz, 1962; Winter E. Der Josefinismus: Geschichte des österreichischen Reformkatholizismus. B., 1962; Hajdu L. II. József igazgatási reformjai Magyarországon. Bdpst, 1982; Haselsteiner H. Joseph II. und die Komitate Ungarns: Herrscherrecht u. standischer Constitutionalism. W.; Koln; Graz, 1983; Gutkas K. Kaiser Josef II.: Eine Biographie. W., 1989; Beals D. Joseph II. Camb., 2009. 2 vol.
K. T. Medvedeva
Elected by the emperor, he was attached to the management of the Austrian possessions by his mother. The era of their joint management was marked by a wide transformative activities, since the need for reform was clearly revealed during Seven Years' War, which put Austria on the brink of death, and the enlightening ideas of French philosophy of the 18th century penetrated from abroad.
The “enlightenment” party (Aufkl? Rungspartei) increasingly gained the upper hand in literature and even in the government circles of Austria, despite the conservative inclinations of the empress, and finally Joseph became the leader of the supporters of novelty, with whose participation the government of Maria Theresa eased the situation of the peasants, strengthened state power , to the detriment of clerical and feudal elements, abolished the Jesuit order and abolished torture. However, the policy of Maria Theresa, full of compromises, could not satisfy her son. Despite his ardent love for his mother, Joseph spent the best years of his life in a dull struggle with her, sometimes much aggravated (for example, on the issue of religious tolerance).
Independent government. The enlightened absolutism of Joseph
Only after the death of his mother, in 1780, did Joseph have his hands completely untied to carry out broad reformative plans. The program of Joseph II was a consistent expression of the system of enlightened absolutism. A contemporary of the crowned philosophers, Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II, Joseph was one of the most active people of his time, who, sparing neither himself nor others, completely exhausted himself with work. His countless journeys were not triumphant walks, but the hard work of a conscientious auditor. Going into everything personally, he sincerely believed in his calling to bring Austria out of its backward state through reforms coming from above. For this, it was necessary, as he believed, first of all, the strengthening of state power, and Joseph followed the old Austrian tradition of strengthening the external and internal power of the state, bureaucratic centralization, uniting the diverse composition of the monarchy, trampling on the ancient liberties of feudal origin and subordinating the Church to the state. In the form of a corrective to arbitrariness, however, he allowed a public discussion of current issues in the press and open criticism of the actions of the monarch (law on the press of June 11, 1781).
His philanthropic activity extended to all the disadvantaged, from the oppressed peasantry to the orphans, the sick, the deaf and dumb, and the illegitimate. Nevertheless, Joseph was completely alien to the sentimental and somewhat abstract complacency of the sensitive 18th century. At the slightest resistance, he showed great cruelty; in foreign policy, he was guided only by the interests of his state. In this sense, he influenced the diplomacy of Maria Theresa and is responsible for the role of Austria in the first partition of Poland. He did not seek praise from fashionable writers; during a trip to France (1777), which made a lot of noise, his meeting with Voltaire did not take place of his own free will.
Religious policy
In 1781, he issued the famous decree on October 13 on religious tolerance and abolished those monasteries and religious orders that do not contribute to the cause of public education or charity of the sick (December 20).
The church was placed in close dependence on the state and its connection with the Roman curia was significantly limited. Public education is placed under the supervision of the state, and initial education has become a matter of special concern. The Catholic Church remained dominant, but the Orthodox, Lutherans and Calvinists were granted civil rights, and the Jews received various reliefs. Since 1782, deviation from the dominant faith was no longer considered a criminal offense, but the government did not dare to introduce freedom of conscience in a fanatical country: the right to choose a religion was limited by deadlines and other obstacles, and Joseph was sometimes even cruel to sectarians.
Joseph II (1741-1790), King of Germany from 1764, Holy Roman Emperor from 1765
The eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa, her co-ruler as Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph II began to rule on his own only after the death of his mother in 1780. He continued the policy of an enlightened monarch, but along with the strengthening of state power, he sought to turn Austria into an economically strong and free state. He was the first to allow the discussion of many reforms in the press, he was not afraid to hear criticism addressed to him. He took care of public education, issued a law on religious tolerance and established the equality of all citizens before the law.
Joseph was very fond of traveling. He was not afraid of either the distance or the difficulty of the path. He could shake in the carriage for days, just to see the desired goal, to delve into the essence of the matter and give his decision. He traveled all over Austria and neighboring lands far and wide. I went to France, I watched how the vineyards grow. Once he was invited to Russia ...
January 2, 1787 from St. Petersburg to the newly acquired Crimea went imperial train of 14 carriages and 124 sledges with wagons. Among the distinguished foreign guests of the Russian Empress Catherine II was the incognito Austrian Emperor Joseph II. He was considered a reliable ally of the Russian empress. Joseph looked with curiosity at the boundless expanses spread before him, at the smartly dressed peasants who greeted the guests.
After a trip to the Crimea, Joseph II spoke frankly: not a single European emperor can afford what the Russians are doing. He admired the reign of Catherine II, but condemned serfdom as a stagnant phenomenon. In response, the Russian Empress smiled dryly, she did not accept such criticism, but did not want to quarrel with the enlightened monarch.
Observations in Russia only convinced Emperor Joseph of the justice of the idea that occupied him of the complete emancipation of the peasants, which was supposed to lead to the freedom of society and the state itself. The free peasant is the best producer. He faced the solution of this difficult issue immediately after the death of his mother in 1780. Despite all her enlightenment, Maria Theresa was afraid to reform society too deeply, and even more so did not want to free the peasants.
Joseph in his transformations went further than his mother-ruler and showed excessive radicalism: he began to destroy the privileges of nobles and feudal lords, which caused discontent among many close associates. In 1781, he abolished serfdom in Bohemia, then in other provinces, encouraged the redemption of peasant allotments, and took care of the welfare of the rural population. He didn't succeed in everything. His reforms were progressive, but they were hampered by feudal lords and champions of the Catholic religion who were dissatisfied with him.
He wanted many changes and often intervened in all spheres of life, introducing his own order and regulations. By this he irritated even the Viennese public, to whom he indicated how to perform a funeral, how to wear hats and answer greetings. Along with the freedoms proclaimed by him, he did not want to abolish centralization, which means the bureaucracy of power, and introduced the German language everywhere.
From classes internal affairs Joseph was distracted by external problems. Continuing the work of his mother, he wanted to annex the Bavarian lands. Then he could put pressure on Prussia. But the wise King of Prussia, Frederick II, rallied around himself dissatisfied with the policies of Joseph electors, princes, and ... Joseph had to abandon his plans for conquest.
Failure befell him in relations with Holland because of navigation on the Scheldt River, which he was denied. But he began to actively help Russia during Russian-Turkish war(1787-1792). Russia was able to defend its borders and bring the matter to a victorious conclusion. But Austria's ally suffered because of the actions of its generals. The Turks invaded Austria. Joseph, with his characteristic determination, himself became the head of the army.
2. Joseph II.
administrative device.
Joseph II wanted to "turn his state into a machine, the soul of which is his sole will ...". From now on, officials, including higher ones, played the role of executors, even ministers did not have independence, but had to provide a detailed report on the most insignificant matters. Since 1882, the Chancellery has been in charge of all internal affairs, with the exception of judicial and most of the military. At the head was the supreme chancellor with his assistants - the chancellor and vice-chancellor. 18 advisers served under them. There was also a large staff of small employees.
The central administrative bodies, as under Maria Theresa, remained:
"Imperial-Royal United Czech-Austrian Chancellery" - for the German lands;
Hungarian-Sedmigrad Chancellery - for the respective lands;
State Chancellery - for Lombardy and Belgium.
The extensive powers and independent position of the governors were contrary to the spirit of the Josephine bureaucracy: they had to limit themselves to only one representation.
Joseph II sought a new division of the monarchy into provinces. Thus, in the German hereditary lands of the provinces, there were 8, instead of the previous 13. The principle of centralization was carried out without any attention to the historically established traditions. At the head of each province was a governor with a provincial presence subordinate to him.
The real executors of the supreme power in the localities were the famous chiefs with their assistants - commissars, secretaries and dragoons. Their competence was almost all-encompassing.
Joseph arranged audiences at the Controlgang, to which anyone and everyone was admitted, without distinction of rank or status.
Joseph II set about eradicating bribery. Supervision of officials was established, including their private lives. No recommendation had value in his eyes. A strict service ladder was also established. All candidates for high positions, regardless of class, started from a lower position.
military reforms.
The practice of the Josephine regime went somewhat further than the Teresian reform. But the essence remains the same. The difference was only quantitative, not qualitative, if under him recruitment almost completely stopped, the script was extended to Hungary and Tyrol.
Judicial reforms.
In the field of judiciary, Joseph II adhered to the principle of centralization and nationalization of the court. The new 13 provinces were divided into 6 judicial districts, and in each of them a judicial chamber with a collegial composition of crown judges served as the second instance of appeal. In the first instance, the crown court was the Zemsky court for the trials of persons of the privileged classes, the city magistrate for the burghers and the rural massacre for the peasants, where the judge appointed from the landowner and elected from the community sat.
Perhaps, to a greater extent, the principle of nationalization manifested itself in the criminal sphere: here, as the only type, “Criminalgerichte” was established, a district that, if possible, coincided with the administrative one, and whose court was subject to persons without exception of estates. The trial was conducted in accordance with the new norms of criminal law set forth in the General Code of Laws.
It is characteristic of Joseph that he, in contrast to Maria Theresa, considered the nobility of origin to be an aggravating circumstance. The perpetrator was punished. The death penalty, in principle, was abolished, but continued to be applied in especially important cases. Hard labor was tantamount to a slow but inevitable death. The usual punishment was imprisonment under fairly harsh conditions. In the investigative section, an inquisitorial process reigned: denunciations were not only allowed, but also encouraged.
Tax policy.
The budget was replenished by direct and indirect taxes. An attempt was made to replace them with a single tax - land tax. There is no difference between master and peasant, state and church lands. The classification was made according to the size, fertility and location of the site. 40% of the gross income seemed to Joseph a suitable amount of taxation.
4.Cultural policy.
Culture and science are important indicators of the life of society as a whole, its progress, directions and prospects for development. Speaking about public policy, one cannot but consider the position of the monarch on the issue of state intervention, support and regulation in this area.
17th - 18th centuries not marked by any active actions of the state in the field of culture and science. As in many European countries, this area of public life in Austria was practically monopolized by the church - as you know, their subjects and literature and painting were drawn from biblical legends. Most books were published in Latin, theater and dramatic literature were influenced by the Jesuits. Teaching at universities and schools was the privilege of church ministers. However, this period can also be called a period of growth of national unity, the emergence of national self-consciousness - the word "Austria" became a definite concept full of meaning for the people of that time. With this fact, probably, it is necessary to associate the appearance of literature in the national language, numerous geographical and historical descriptions of the Austrian lands - some of these works were subsidized by the crown. It is known that the royal court also had a great influence on the culture of this time: for example, the passion for Italian opera very quickly entered the daily life of the capital, and under Charles VI the first opera house was founded in Vienna. Also noteworthy is the opening in 1677 of a new university in Innsbruck.
Nevertheless, one can speak of large-scale and consistent transformations in the field of science only from the middle of the 18th century, and they should be associated with the names of Maria Theresa, Joseph II, Van Swieten, Sonnenfels.
Thus, fundamental reforms were carried out in the field of education. It is known that the reforms in the field of schooling belong to the best reforms of Maria Theresa: a wide network of public schools, free and public, was created, along with which vocational schools began to function to train workers of various specialties. Between 1750 and 1770. a number of special educational institutions were opened, including a mining academy, technical schools, agricultural schools, a trade academy and several pedagogical schools, among which the women's pedagogical school was then the only one in Europe.
Speaking about the system of higher education in Austria, first of all, it is worth paying attention to the reform of the University of Vienna, the soul of which was Van Swieten, a man of progressive views, who absorbed the spirit of the Enlightenment. He did everything in his power to create the type of educational institution that best met the requirements of his time. After the order of the Jesuits was abolished by the pope in 1773 (namely, the Jesuits led the University), the University of Vienna was taken over by the state. First of all, Van Switten changed the curriculum and course of the university, orienting it to the study of the natural sciences, while in the educational institutions run by the church, the main subjects were theology, philosophy, law, Latin and Greek; even the study of such a science as medicine was based mainly on abstract philosophical conclusions, and not on experiment and analysis. Chemistry, botany and surgery were included in the medical education program. Much more space was devoted to anatomy than before, and students were charged with the duty of autopsy and practical training in hospitals. In 1752, the philosophical and theological faculties were reorganized. At the Faculty of Philosophy, they began to study physics, philosophy, natural history and ethics; the theological faculty was also to teach "scientific thinking". Since 1753, natural law, the theory of law of the reformers, was included in the course of legal sciences, in which for the first time it was said about human rights in general and the duties of the sovereign in relation to the people.
Simultaneously with the university, many gymnasiums also left the church. The same educational institutions that remained under the jurisdiction of the church had to accept the curriculum established by the state. This plan was built according to the same principles as the university plan. The purpose of education, according to Van Swieten and other adherents of the school reform, was not just to transfer "pure" knowledge, not related to the needs of modern society, but to train practitioners, people who can be actively involved in all spheres of public life, and most importantly, to reveal able economists and even industrialists to the state.
The gymnasiums and universities were tasked with preparing good initiative officials, teachers and doctors who could contribute to the “well-being of the population” with their work and turn the state into an “ideal” body that ensures this well-being.
It should be noted that these goals and aspirations clearly indicate the inclusion of the idea of the public good, both the worldview of the reformers themselves and the whole society as a whole. Indeed, if even for Maria Theresa, first of all, there were the interests of the House of Habsburg and the dynasty, then Van Swieten, Sonnenfels and even Joseph II, acting under the influence of the humanists, proceeded from the interests of Austria and the Austrian people. The reformers, however, were reproached for belittling pure science with their policy of "utilitarianism", turning it into a "servant of the state", and thereby limiting thinking. This criticism seems inappropriate, because, firstly, theology as an alternative did not give freedom of thought in any way; and secondly, the reforms undertaken made it possible to create a whole generation of educated people of a new type for Austria and world-famous scientists for all mankind. (Auenbrugger, Semmelweis, Rokitansky, etc.)
Austria, considered a second-rate power in the field of science and art in Europe, quickly moved forward in terms of science to the first rank.
So, in the era of Maria Theresa and Joseph II, the flourishing of music began - the world of Haydn, Mozart, Gluck (the music teacher of royal children) appeared and submitted.
In 1764, theatrical censorship was partially abolished. The national drama had the opportunity to develop unhindered: in 1778, the "National Singspiel" was established, where plays like comic opera were performed; the state also supported the Burgtheater, the Ukertnertor theatre. In the reign of Joseph II in 1781, censorship of books and magazines was almost completely abolished. Along with "A Man Without Prejudice" by Sonnenfels (the magazines "Mir" and "Austrian Patriot" published by Klemm and Heufeld appeared.) By the end of the 18th century. in Austria there were already prominent writers: Alois Blumauer, Joseph Ratshki, Johannes Alksinger, playwrights Gebler, Eirengof and Heufeld. They raised political, philosophical and cultural-political issues. The writers strove consciously to develop a new national literature; they felt themselves to be the bearers of progress, the supporters of enlightenment.
All the above activities stimulated the development of various aspects of the cultural life of Austria. It cannot be said that all this contributed to the "creation" of culture, but it can be argued that Austrian culture would have existed in a fundamentally different form without these, of course, progressive initiatives that corresponded to the spirit of the true Enlightenment. The state contributed to the spread and development of the ideas of enlightenment, removing the obstacles that retarded the growth of a new culture.
5. Bright figures-reformers.
At the end of the XVII century. a reform movement began in Austria, at first stronger at the top, at court, than among the bourgeoisie. At court, a reform party was formed, to which belonged high-ranking officials, high military command, sometimes the most prominent representatives of the new intelligentsia, close to government circles, as well as representatives of the Habsburg dynasty themselves.
The first "prophets" and theorists who established the main lines of development of the new Austria and were directly involved in establishing the new order were the Austrian mercantilists, the "Great Three" of Austrian mercantilism - Philipp Wilhelm von Hernigk, I.I. Becher and Schroeder.
It is interesting that a significant part of the figures of the 17th and 18th centuries, who took part in the formation and development of the Austrian nation and became known as Austrian patriots, were not of Austrian origin. Prince Eugene, whose victories contributed to the strengthening of Austria's position as a great power, was born in Paris. Abraham a Sancta Clara is a famous Catholic orator, writer and poet, a man who, in his sermons to the people, as sharply as anyone else, branded speculators and monopolists of his time, emphasizing that he considers Austria his fatherland. - Came from the Rhine, Van Swieten, the founder of the Viennese medical school and the first major statesman who persistently pursued liberal ideas in the field of culture, was a Dutchman. The "Great Three" of Austrian mercantilism - Philipp Wilhelm von Hernigk, J. I. Becher and Schröder - were "naturalized Austrians". Becher was born in Speyer, Schröder in Chemnitz, Hernigk in Mainz. There is, however, nothing surprising that it was precisely these people who could not put up with the deplorable state of the German principalities, the size of which, according to figurative expression, did not exceed one twelfth of a sheet. Germany could not be a fatherland, nor a favorable field of activity for people who, in times of awakening national consciousness, wanted to create a fatherland for the young intelligentsia, who wanted to vigorously set to work to give the world the desired look. For them, the progressing, despite all the difficulties, Austria, which promised to become a great power, Austria, in which the formation of the nation began, became the fatherland. Austria soon became for them all what she became for Hernigk, who expressed his attitude towards her in the following words: “To this country, whose bread I eat, I give all of myself!”
The best known of the three mentioned is Hernigk, although Becher and Schröder carried out more reforms and had a more serious influence on the development of Austria. But Hernigk's book "Austria is above all, if only she wishes it", which came out two years after the Turkish war of 1683, became the program of the new Austria, the bible of the young intelligentsia, the new bourgeoisie. Joseph I, Prince Eugene and the Court Reform Party. Joseph, who in many respects went much further than Hernigk's demands, called him his teacher. The school of Austrian reformers later called themselves "physiocrats", but the ideas put forward by Hernigk continued to be the basis of their program.
However, the merit of the mercantilists lies mainly not in the creation of industrial and commercial institutions and educational institutions, but in the fact that they acted as teachers and inspirers of the ideas of creating New Austria. The ideas of the Austrian mercantilists played a significant role in the development of the Austrian economy.
The "Great Three" outlined a number of state tasks and tried to encourage the crown to begin their implementation. In the end, the significance of these tasks became clear to most of the court and the state apparatus.
The most prominent Habsburg reformers were Maria Theresa and Joseph II. The reign of Maria Theresa was an important stage in the development of absolutism in the Austrian lands. She carried out reforms aimed at strengthening state centralization (the establishment of a state council, the reform of provincial government, customs reform, etc.). She pursued a policy of protectionism, patronized the development of industry and trade. The judiciary was reformed (1768 - a new criminal code; 1776 - torture was abolished), a military reform was carried out.
Co-ruler of Maria Theresa between 1765 and 1780. was her son Joseph. Joseph sincerely wished well for his country and prosperity for his people, firmly believed that he was called to do great things. Joseph had clear ideas about the upcoming transformations - it is necessary to overcome the disunity of the regions, create conditions for the rise of all aspects of life, create a class of producers and workers, improve education, break the fetters of class restrictions, transform the fiscal system, eliminate serfdom and the widespread presence of the church.
The co-government did not satisfy Joseph - he craved everything at once, but Maria Theresa did not want to quarrel with anyone and wanted everyone to love her.
The death of his beloved wife, Mary of Parma, had a huge impact on the personality of Joseph II. He became unsociable, avoided society, drowned out longing with endless work. He never got married again. In the end, Joseph II decided that he could rely only on himself, that only all the fullness of power would give him the opportunity to realize his plans, to relieve oppressive dissatisfaction. This is how the concept of absolute power, the imperative imperative, took shape.
Having become an autocratic ruler, he gives the reforms a swift and comprehensive character.
First of all, Joseph subjected to a radical revision of the entire state structure, completely changing the principles of the formation of the administration. Officialdom falls under the most severe control; the hierarchical ladder was now overcome step by step, the salary was set in accordance with the position, etc.
The next aspect is social reforms. They touched all classes. The position of the peasantry was one of the main concerns of the government even under Maria Theresa. Faithful to its principle of gradualism. Maria Theresa began by limiting corvée and dues, the self-will of the landlords. Having become the sole ruler, Joseph boldly went further. With the famous "Patent on subjects", published at the beginning of 1781, he declared the peasants to be his subjects, just like other classes were. This meant the removal of serfs from the jurisdiction of the landlords, the recognition of their fortress land, and not the owner, a ban on the sale of land without peasants and peasants without land.
Inspired by success, six months later, Joseph abolishes serfdom throughout the empire. Despite the formal abolition of estate privileges, the aristocrats retained significant advantages and constituted the highest and first ranks of power. This suited Joseph; to tie the nobility to service as the main source of livelihood, to tear them, if possible, from land nests, to deprive them of economic, and, consequently, political independence, from his point of view, was very useful.
The church, administrative and peasant reforms of Joseph were distinguished by their great scope and courage. It is amazing that all this was conceived and organized, in essence, by one person.
A deep restructuring of the state is impossible without a radical transformation of legal proceedings and judicial rulings. This, of course, was not about giving independence to the judiciary, this was not part of Joseph's intentions, for this he was too much of a monarch. But to tear the court out of the tight embrace of the estates and to subordinate it to the national rules - at that time meant independence.
The eighteenth century was called the "Age of Enlightenment" for a reason. This name also had a direct, utilitarian meaning. Joseph showed himself here to the fullest. Numerous public elementary schools have opened up everywhere. In Bohemia, for example, in 10 years the number of students in rural schools alone has grown from 14,000 to 117,000. Gymnasiums were established in the cities. Teachers were surrounded by honor, they were provided with apartments, they were well paid. Uniform instructions for all scales and gymnasiums demanded from teachers affectionate treatment, respect for children's dignity.
The fiscal and economic part should be recognized as an essential component of Joseph's reforms, because, as we know very well from our own experience, without properly collected taxes, the treasury cannot provide for the maintenance of an unproductive class of people, and without a well-thought-out and skillfully organized economic activity, the productive stratum of society will also remain poor. In justification of his reform, Joseph wrote: “Ignoring customs and prejudices, one must look into the essence of things. Soil and earth, which nature has given to people for their subsistence, are the only source from which everything comes, to which everything returns, and which remains forever and ever. From this proposition follows the undoubted truth that the needs of the state are mainly satisfied from the land, and that no distinction can be made between the possessions of people of any class. From this it follows of itself that there can be no difference between noble and peasant, state and church lands, and that everyone should be a payer in accordance with the size, fertility and location of his plot.
The opening of factories and factories was encouraged in every possible way, up to the involvement of Jews in this, which had never happened before in any state. Wasted capital had to be drawn into circulation, and attractive conditions were created for this. New entrepreneurs were exempted from military postings, they were given loans at an insignificant percentage, successful factory owners received bonuses and awards, their workers were exempted from recruitment duty.
In order to finally finish off the guild structure, the emperor began to select the lands belonging to corporations. To justify this measure, Joseph gave the first argument that came to his mind, without bothering to find special arguments - the land was used only for arranging numerous noisy workshop gatherings and feasts, there is nothing to drink, you have to work! The proceeds from these requisitions went to a good cause - the charity of the poor.
Reasonable measures in the regulation of internal trade - the elimination of customs barriers between provinces, the cessation of fees for the transport of rural products to the city market, for travel through cities and private estates, the prohibition of monopoly price setting - led to an increase in its volume.
These are the main reforms of Joseph II. But he was also engaged in the reorganization of the army and recruitment, the organization of medical and charitable institutions, mining, road construction and many other things, everywhere introducing his spirit of intolerance and impatience.
Conclusion.
In the XVI-XVIII centuries. after the religious wars, the number of independent state formations in Germany greatly increased (there were more than 300 of them), the so-called princely absolutism is being established. It differed from the centralized absolute monarchies of the West (as well as class-representative monarchies) in that it was formed not within the framework of the entire empire, which remained decentralized, but within individual princely possessions. The merit of the Habsburgs as absolutist monarchs lies precisely in the fact that they managed to establish a strong, authoritative, progressive and just government in such a divided country as Austria. Moreover, they have achieved a relative unity, at least directly the Austrian lands. But the interests of dependent states were also taken into account. Although it is impossible to exaggerate the merit of the monarchs in the policy towards the provinces: in Hungary exclusively agrarian relations were purposefully preserved, in the Czech Republic the privileges remained with the German landowners. But already under Maria Theresa, a single customs space was established in the country, without internal borders and privileged regions. That. a single economic space was created, which, of course, contributed to the development of trade and industry. But at the same time, along with the emergence of manufactories, the workshops were not liquidated. In this regard, the progressiveness of the economic policy of the absolutist Habsburg monarchy can be denied.
The greatest, in our opinion, step in a truly enlightening spirit was the liberation of the peasants from personal dependence. Although the peasants lost all rights to the land, from an economic point of view, industry received a significant replenishment of the labor market.
Much has also been done in the field of law. The new "Criminal Code", the abolition of torture, the abolition of class privileges in the judicial process were, of course, progressive measures, although some survivals remained, such as the persecution of witches, etc.
The undoubted merit of Joseph II in the religious sphere was the establishment of broad religious tolerance, along with limiting the influence and rights of the church. In modern conditions, the influence of Catholicism remained unacceptable, because. greatly limited the progressive tendencies that manifested themselves in society. But still, many scholars argue that these reforms were nothing more than a "cosmetic operation", a game for the public. And the broad influence of the Catholic Church on the masses allegedly played into the hands of the government. In our opinion, it is not quite right to speak in this way, because after analyzing these reforms, it is impossible to agree with their declarativeness: the influence of Catholicism was indeed limited, and even the requests of the pope himself could not turn Joseph away from the chosen path of reforms.
In a similar tone, it is said that all the reforms of Maria Theresa were aimed only at eliminating the most obvious contradictions of the feudal system in order to prolong the existence of the latter; and "enlightened absolutism" in Austria acted for the most part in the interests of the ruling class - the nobles. Such statements contradict the real facts. As we discussed above, the reforms were aimed rather at reducing the privileges of the nobles and raising the class of officials. It's just that the monarchs managed to establish such an authoritative power that the nobles simply did not have the strength to resist them. Even the Czech nobility, whose interests were most violated, refused to resist.
By reducing the privileges of the nobility and the church and improving the position of the peasants, the Habsburgs nevertheless lost sight of a very important issue: the problem of the multinationality of the Austrian Empire. Their policy was directed towards centralization, in which they achieved some success. But still they could not overcome the decentralizing tendencies, which subsequently manifested itself in the active movement of nationalities for the separation of states.
As for the cultural policy of the Habsburgs, one cannot but notice what a cultural and scientific flowering began in Austria at that time! Absolutist monarchs patronized scientists and artists, attracted foreign scientists and teachers. It was at this time that the national identity of the Austrian people began to emerge. Joseph contributed to this by introducing the German language into schools, making it practically a state language.
Summing up, we can say that, in our opinion, the policy of the Habsburgs met the criteria of "Enlightened absolutism" in almost everything. Yes, and many scientists say that absolutism in Austria was truly enlightened, perhaps the only one of its kind in Europe. Its main features were:
Strengthening the power of the monarch and carrying out progressive reforms in a rather fragmented and multinational country;
Sovereigns' concern is not so much about the performance by citizens of their duties, but about their well-being, about observing their rights;
Reliance not on the broad circles of the nobility as the ruling class, but on the balance of power between the nobility, the bourgeoisie and the bureaucracy;
Almost completely peaceful implementation of reforms, the absence of major social and political conflicts.
Bibliography.
World history in 24 volumes. - v. 15. - Minsk, 1999
Zeldich Yu.V. Joseph II Habsburg - reformer.//Star.-1998,-№2.
Mitrofanov P. History of Austria. Part I (From ancient times to 1972) - St. Petersburg, 1910
New story countries of Europe and America. The first period.//Ed. E.E. Yurovskaya and I.M. Krivoguz. - M., 1997
Priester E. Short story Austria. - M., 1952
Absolutism in Austria.
Pomeranian State University them. M.V. Lomonosov
Group analytical work on the topic:
Completed:
3rd year students of the 1st group of the Faculty of History
Zhigareva Oksana Mikhailovna
Morozenko Anna Leonidovna
And frightened the monarchs of all Europe, put an end to the policy of enlightened absolutism where it had not been stopped even earlier. The essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism in Europe (on the example of Prussia, Austria, Spain): PRUSSIA: 1. Streamlining the activities of financial and judicial authorities 2. Expanding primary education 3. Increasing tolerance for people of other faiths ...
Austrian multinational state economic hegemony in the first half of the XVIII century. more and more passed to Austria proper. However, compared not only with England, Holland, France, but even with some German principalities, Austria was an economically backward country. Austrian industry was concentrated mainly in Vienna and in general in the region of Lower Austria. She is...
