Russia in the 19th century. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the 19th century) 50 60s of the 19th century

    Russia at the beginning of the 19th century- Russia was one of the largest powers in Europe. During the 18th century, its territory increased by one third, and its population increased two and a half times, and by the beginning of the 19th century. reached 36 million people. At the beginning of the 19th century. in Russia continued... ... World history. Encyclopedia

    Bulletin of Europe (early 19th century)- Bulletin of Europe is a bi-weekly magazine published in Moscow in 1802-1830. IN different years circulation ranged from 580 to 1200 copies. The idea of ​​creating the magazine belongs to the tenant of the printing house of Moscow University, I. Popov. He suggested... ... Wikipedia

    Bulletin of Europe (late 19th century)- “Bulletin of Europe”, cover of the magazine “Bulletin of Europe” (Bulletin of Europe) monthly magazine, founded in 1802 by N. M. Karamzin, published for two years in St. Petersburg, later revived and published from 1866 to 1918. From 1866 to 1868 the magazine... ... Wikipedia

    MONTHLY MENU IN THE MID-90S OF THE 19th CENTURY (to be repeated every month)- Fast table No. 1 1. Rassolnik with Smolensk grain 2. Veal leg sauce with fresh cucumbers 3. Fried blackbirds 4. Pies with jam No. 2 1. Pasta soup with... ... Great encyclopedia culinary arts

    History of Russian Freemasonry of the 19th century (book)- History of Russian Freemasonry of the 19th century Genre: history of Freemasonry

    RUSSIAN LITERATURE. Literature of the 1st half of the 19th century - Literary life early XIX V. was determined by increasingly obvious signs of the crisis of the autocratic serf system, the national upsurge Patriotic War 1812, the maturation of the ideas of noble revolution. The process of gradual... Literary encyclopedic dictionary

    Solar eclipses of the 19th century- The first photograph of a total solar eclipse, taken at the Königsberg Observatory on July 28, 1851 by daguerreotypist Berkovsky Main article: Solar eclipse This is a list of solar... Wikipedia

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Books

  • Political and cultural relations between Russia and Serbia in the 30-50s of the 19th century. Documents of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs,. The collection is dedicated to Russian-Serbian political relations during the formation of Serbian statehood. Previously unpublished documents from the Russian Foreign Policy Archive were brought in... Buy for 2074 rubles
  • Forties of the 19th century. This collection, dedicated to the 40s of the 19th century, contains memories of contemporaries, excerpts from works of art and some documents telling about how the Russian lived...

In 1841, the British took Canton, Amoy and Ningbo. In 1842 the British captured Shanghai and Zhenjiang. The threat to Nanjing forced China to sue for peace. China ceded Hong Kong to England, opened Canton, Amoy and Fuzhou to English trade, returned Ningbo and Shanghai to Britain and paid an indemnity of 20 million dollars.

Notes:

* To compare events that took place in Russia and Western Europe, in all chronological tables, starting from 1582 (the year of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in eight European countries) and ending with 1918 (the year of transition Soviet Russia from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), the DATE column indicates date only according to the Gregorian calendar, and the Julian calendar date is indicated in parentheses along with a description of the event. In chronological tables describing the periods before the introduction of the new style by Pope Gregory XIII (in the DATES column) Dates are based on the Julian calendar only.. At the same time, no translation is made to the Gregorian calendar, because it did not exist.

Literature and sources:

Russian and world history in tables. Author-compiler F.M. Lurie. St. Petersburg, 1995

Chronology Russian history. Encyclopedic reference book. Under the leadership of Francis Comte. M., " International relations". 1994.

Chronicle of world culture. M., "White City", 2001.

"The day before."

(Julian calendar - February 19) On the 6th anniversary of his accession to the throne Alexander II signs the Manifesto About the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of free rural inhabitants and about the structure of their life. This was followed by a series of legislative acts, the most important of which was Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom. (See also On the ransom of peasants emerging from serfdom...) Suppression of a peasant revolt by troops. Abyss of Kazan province ( see Apraksin's report), demanding “full freedom” and immediate provision of land. In the following months, frustration with the inconsistency of the reform grows: articles appear A. Herzen And N. Ogareva V "Bell" , N. Chernyshevsky V "Contemporary". There is a rapid spread of revolutionary (“nihilistic”) sentiments among young people. Articles contribute to this D. Pisareva And N. Dobrolyubova, as well as calls for rebellion in proclamations N. Shelgunova And M. Mikhailova(“To the younger generation”) and P. Zaichnevsky("Young Russia"). (according to the Julian calendar - January 10) The beginning of the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. - simultaneous attack on all Russian garrisons, creation of a Provisional National Government, declaration of national independence Poland, the flight of Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich from Warsaw. The uprising spreads to Lithuania, part of Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine, but the forces of the rebels are clearly insufficient, weakened by disagreements between the “reds” and “whites” and deprived of the support of the peasants. The uprising was received with sharp hostility by Russian public opinion - A. Herzen and M. Bakunin, who welcomed it, themselves were subjected to public ostracism. (according to the Julian calendar - January 1) Zemstvo reform in Russia - Regulations on provincial and district land institutions. Bodies of local self-government - county zemstvo assemblies are elected for 3 years by three curiae of voters (county landowners, city voters and elected from rural societies) and elect the provincial zemstvo assembly from among themselves. The competence of zemstvos includes management (under the tutelage of the administration) of healthcare, public education, local communications and assistance economic development. Zemstvos were introduced only in 34 provinces. (according to the Julian calendar - April 4) The first (of eight) attempt on life Alexandra II walking through the Summer Garden. Revolutionary terrorist D.V. Karakozov, included in secret society"Hell" led by N. Ishutin, adjacent to “Land and Freedom”, shot at the emperor near the Summer Garden, but missed. The intervention of the peasant O. Komissarov saved the tsar's life. Thanksgiving prayers throughout the country, a patriotic demonstration on Palace Square in St. Petersburg, arrests of all those involved in the assassination attempt. Closing of the magazines "Sovremennik" and " Russian word"The beginning of a departure from the policy of reforms: important government posts were replaced by conservatives, Count D. Tolstoy was appointed Minister of Public Education, and from 1865 - Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod. The assassin was immediately arrested and placed in the Alekseevsky Ravelin. Student unrest in St. Petersburg. Arrest of most members of the illegal group S. Nechaeva And P. Tkacheva. S. Nechaev’s flight abroad, meeting in Geneva with the anarchist ideologist M. Bakunin. Upon returning to Russia, S. Nechaev creates a secret society "People's Retribution" in Moscow and kills one of its members, student I. Ivanov, on suspicion of treason (the "Nechaev case" that shocked Russia and served as the plot basis for the novel F.M. Dostoevsky"Demons", 1871-1872). After the murder he flees abroad again. Issued by the Swiss government of Russia. He died in 1882 in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Notes

* To compare events that took place in Russia and Western Europe, in all chronological tables, starting from 1582 (the year of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in eight European countries) and ending with 1918 (the year of the transition of Soviet Russia from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), in the column DATES indicated date only according to the Gregorian calendar , and the Julian calendar date is indicated in parentheses along with a description of the event. In chronological tables describing the periods before the introduction of the new style by Pope Gregory XIII (in the DATES column) Dates are based on the Julian calendar only. . At the same time, no translation is made to the Gregorian calendar, because it did not exist.

The second half of the 19th century was a time of serious changes in the social life of Russia, a period of unprecedented prosperity and world recognition of Russian national culture. The 60s and 70s were turning points in this process. Heavy economic situation and Russia's defeat in Crimean War(1856) sharply raised the question of the need for fundamental changes in the structure of the state.

The “era of great reforms” began with the abolition of serfdom (1861) under Alexander II, who went down in Russian history under the name of “tsar-liberator.” The reforms affected self-government bodies and the judicial system, the introduction of universal conscription and public education, weakening of censorship and development of the press. They were accompanied by a powerful social upsurge that embraced all segments of the population. A special role in it was played by the heterogeneous (non-noble) intelligentsia, which united teachers and artisans, doctors and agronomists, officials and people from the peasantry and clergy, students and writers.

Important The activities of Herzen and his newspaper Kolokol, as well as the writings of Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov, who collaborated with Nekrasov in the Sovremennik magazine, contributed to the dissemination of democratic and revolutionary ideas. Later, Nekrasov continued and developed the traditions of Sovremennik in the journal Otechestvennye zapiski.

The changes that took place had a huge impact on the development of domestic literature, science and art. The pride of Russian culture was the work of Turgenev, Goncharov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Dostoevsky, Ostrovsky, Leo Tolstoy, as well as the works of outstanding historians Solovyov, Kostomarov, Klyuchevsky. To rapid progress natural sciences contributed to the works of biologists Mechnikov and Timiryazev, chemists Zinin, Mendeleev and Butlerov, physicist Stoletov, physiologist Sechenov and other scientists.

During these years, theatrical art flourished. In addition to state (“state-owned”) theaters, numerous private troupes appear in the capital and provinces; Modern realistic drama is increasingly being included in their repertoire. Deep psychological images in performances are created by such luminaries of the Russian stage as Prov Sadovsky, Fedotova, Ermolova, Savina, Varlamov.

Updated and fine arts. In 1870, a group of artists organized the “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions,” which began organizing painting exhibitions in various cities of Russia. The “peredvizhniki” included Kramskoy, Perov, Surikov, the Vasnetsov brothers, Repin, Shishkin, Polenov, Savrasov, Ge, Vasiliev, Kuindzhi, Makovsky, Yaroshenko, and in the 80s Levitan and V. Serov joined them. In their landscapes, portraits, everyday and historical paintings, artists sought to embody real life in all the complexity of its social and moral problems, to reveal the fate of an individual and an entire people. Starting from the mid-50s, their best works were acquired by the Moscow merchant P. M. Tretyakov, who decided to compile a collection of Russian painting. His collection became the basis of the first Russian national gallery, which he donated to Moscow in 1892.

The forms of musical and concert life have also changed. The number of people interested in serious art has increased. In order to “make good music accessible to large masses of the public” (D. V. Stasov), the Russian Musical Society (RMS) was founded in St. Petersburg in 1859, which later became known as the Imperial Society (IRMS). The initiator of its creation was Anton Grigorievich Rubinstein, the great Russian pianist, composer and conductor. The RMO not only organized symphony and chamber concerts: it contributed to the creation of musical educational institutions(music classes) and holding competitions among Russian composers to create new works. Following St. Petersburg, RMO branches are opening in Moscow and most large cities of Russia.

To train and educate professional musicians, the need for which has sharply increased, in 1862 in St. Petersburg, the music classes of the Russian Musical Society were transformed into the first Russian conservatory, whose director was A. G. Rubinstein. In 1866, the Moscow Conservatory opened; it was headed by A. G. Rubinstein’s brother Nikolai Grigorievich Rubinstein, a pianist and conductor who did a lot for the development of the musical life of Moscow.

In 1862, in St. Petersburg, simultaneously with the conservatory, the Free Music School (FMS), which was led by M. A. Balakirev and choral conductor, composer and singing teacher G. Ya. Lomakin. In contrast to the professional goals of conservatory education, the main goal of the BMS was to spread musical culture among a wide range of people. An ordinary music lover could learn the basics of musical theory, singing in a choir and playing orchestral instruments at the BMS.

Great value In the musical and educational work of the BMS, there were her symphony concerts (with the participation of the school choir), and a significant part of their repertoire consisted of works by Russian composers.

A huge contribution to the popularization of Russian music and the development of national performing arts was made by pianists and conductors the Rubinstein brothers, singers Platonova, Lavrovskaya, Melnikov, Stravinsky, violinist Auer, cellist Davydov, conductor Napravnik and others.

In the 60-70s, A. N. Serov and A. G. Rubinstein created their best works. At the same time, the talent of representatives of the younger generation - Tchaikovsky and a whole group of St. Petersburg composers who united around Balakirev - was fully revealed. This creative community, which emerged at the turn of the 50s and 60s, was called the “New Russian Music School”, or “The Mighty Handful”. In addition to Balakirev, who headed the circle, it included Cui, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov and Borodin. Their creative views were formed under the influence of the democratic ideas of Belinsky, Herzen, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The musicians considered themselves to be continuers of the work of Glinka and Dargomyzhsky and saw their goal in the renewal and development of Russian national music. They believed that an artist in his work should reproduce the truth of life in all its diversity, that art is called upon to fulfill educational and educational tasks and to be, as Chernyshevsky put it, “a means for conversation with people.”

The work of the composers of the “Mighty Handful” was closely connected with the history and life of Russia, with musical and poetic folklore, with ancient customs and rituals. Peasant folk songs were important to them. Carefully collecting and studying folk melodies, they saw them as a source of inspiration and the basis of their musical style.

Members of the circle who did not have a professional musical education acquired their skills under the guidance of Balakirev. A brilliantly gifted composer, a brilliant virtuoso pianist, a capable conductor, Mily Alekseevich Balakirev (1836-1910) already had considerable creative and performing experience and enjoyed enormous authority among his young colleagues.

Subsequently, Rimsky-Korsakov recalled about him: “An excellent pianist, an excellent reader of notes, an excellent improviser, naturally gifted with a sense of correct harmony and voice control, he possessed partly native, partly acquired through practice through his own attempts, a compositional technique.” As a critic, “he immediately felt a technical imperfection or error, he immediately grasped the shortcomings of the form. [...] They obeyed him unquestioningly, for the charm of his personality was terribly great. Young, with wonderfully moving, fiery eyes, with a beautiful beard, speaking decisively, authoritatively and directly, every minute ready for wonderful improvisation at the piano, remembering every bar known to him, memorizing instantly the compositions played to him, he had to produce this charm like no one else . Appreciating the slightest sign of talent in another, he could not help but feel his superiority over him, and this other also felt his superiority over himself. His influence on those around him was limitless and resembled some kind of magnetic or spiritual force.”

Balakirev directs the Free Music School and its regular concerts, continues to compose symphonic and chamber music (the musical film “1000 Years”, the piano fantasy “Islamey”, romances), makes arrangements of folk songs (the collection “40 Russian folk songs” for voice and piano) , is the chief conductor of the RMO.

In the 70s, Balakirev began to be haunted by failures both in his musical and social activities and in his personal life. His relationship with the members of the “Mighty Handful” is changing, who, having become mature composers, no longer need his help and tutelage. The struggle with life's adversities, loss of faith in one's own strength, and material need lead Balakirev to a long-term mental and creative crisis.

In the early 80s, Balakirev returned to musical activity - he again headed the BMS, became director of the Court Singing Chapel, created new works (the symphonic poem “Tamara”, later two symphonies, as well as romances and piano works). But this was a different person - withdrawn and having lost his former energy.

Hand in hand with Balakirev and his young like-minded people, did the music and art critic and historian pave new paths in Russian art? art Vladimir Vasilievich Stasov (1824-1906). A man of encyclopedic knowledge, an expert in music, painting, sculpture, theater, literature, folk art, he was their close friend and assistant, inspirer and initiator of creative ideas. Stasov was a participant in all musical meetings of the Balakirev circle, the first listener and critic of new compositions. In his articles he promoted creativity largest representatives national art and devoted his entire long life to the struggle for an independent national art; the path of its development.

Simultaneously with Stasov, Russian musical criticism during this period was represented by A. Serov, C. Cui and G. Laroche; Tchaikovsky, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov present articles and reviews.

Russian music of the 60-70s became important stage in the development of national art and opened new paths for the further development of domestic and world musical culture.

In the last two decades of the 19th century, composers Borodin, Balakirev, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky continued their creative path and will create outstanding works in various genres.

Questions and tasks

1. What marked the 60s – 70s years XIX centuries in the public life of Russia?

2. How did the cultural life of Russia change at this time? Tell us about the organization of the RMO, the BMS, and the first Russian conservatories.

3. List the writers, artists, scientists of the 60s and 70s.

4. Name the composers who were part of the “Mighty Handful”. What were their ideological and aesthetic views?

5. Tell us about Balakirev, his personality and fate.

6. Describe Stasov’s critical activity and its significance in the development of Russian art. Name other Russian music critics.

The entire public life of Russia was placed under the strictest supervision by the state, which was carried out by the forces of the 3rd department, its extensive network of agents and informers. This was the reason for the decline of the social movement.

A few circles tried to continue the work of the Decembrists. In 1827, at Moscow University, the Kritsky brothers organized a secret circle, the goals of which were the destruction royal family, as well as constitutional reforms in Russia.

In 1831, N.P.’s circle was discovered and destroyed by the tsar’s guards. Sungurov, whose participants were preparing an armed uprising in Moscow. In 1832, the “Literary Society of the 11th Number” operated at Moscow University, of which V.G. was a member. Belinsky. In 1834, the circle of A.I. was opened. Herzen.

In the 30-40s. Three ideological and political directions emerged: reactionary-protective, liberal, revolutionary-democratic.

The principles of the reactionary-protective direction were expressed in his theory by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov. Autocracy, serfdom, and Orthodoxy were declared the most important foundations and a guarantee against shocks and unrest in Russia. The conductors of this theory were professors of Moscow University M.P. Pogodin, S.P. Shevyrev.

The liberal opposition movement was represented by the social movements of Westerners and Slavophiles.

The central idea in the concept of the Slavophiles is the conviction in the unique path of development of Russia. Thanks to Orthodoxy, harmony has developed in the country between different layers of society. Slavophiles called for a return to pre-Petrine patriarchy and the true Orthodox faith. They particularly criticized the reforms of Peter the Great.

Slavophiles left numerous works on philosophy and history (I.V. and P.V. Kirievsky, I.S. and K.S. Aksakov, D.A. Valuev), in theology (A.S. Khomyakov), sociology, economics and politics (Yu.F. Samarin). They published their ideas in the magazines “Moskovityanin” and “Russkaya Pravda”.

Westernism arose in the 30s and 40s. 19th century among representatives of the nobility and various intelligentsia. The main idea is the concept of community historical development Europe and Russia. Liberal Westerners advocated a constitutional monarchy with guarantees of freedom of speech, the press, a public court and democracy (T.N. Granovsky, P.N. Kudryavtsev, E.F. Korsh, P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin). Reform activities They considered Peter the 1st to be the beginning of the renewal of old Russia and proposed to continue it by carrying out bourgeois reforms.

Huge popularity in the early 40s. acquired the literary circle of M.V. Petrashevsky, which over the four years of its existence was visited by leading representatives of society (M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Pleshcheev, A.N. Maikov, P.A. Fedotov, M.I. Glinka, P.P. Semenov, A.G. Rubinshtein, N.G. Chernyshevsky.

Since the winter of 1846, the circle became radicalized; its most moderate members left, forming the left revolutionary wing led by N.A. Speshnev. Its members advocated a revolutionary transformation of society, the elimination of the autocracy, and the liberation of the peasants.

The father of the “theory of Russian socialism” was A.I. Herzen, who combined Slavophilism with socialist doctrine. He considered the peasant community to be the main unit of the future society, with the help of which one can reach socialism, bypassing capitalism.

In 1852, Herzen went to London, where he opened the Free Russian Printing House. Bypassing censorship, he laid the foundation for the Russian foreign press.

The founder of the revolutionary democratic movement in Russia is V.G. Belinsky. He published his views and ideas in “Notes of the Fatherland” and in “Letter to Gogol,” where he sharply criticized Russian tsarism and proposed the path of democratic reforms.

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