To the centenary of the end of the First World War. Countries that took part in the First World War The role of the First World War in history
Relation to the Brest-Litovsk Treaty
“Left Communists” (Bukharin) - against peace, for revolutionary war
L. Trotsky: “No peace, no war!”
V.I. Lenin: “Peace at any cost!”
Other political forces: against peace with Germany.
Consequences of the Brest-Litovsk Peace:
The Bolsheviks received a respite and retained power
Loss of grain-producing areas led to famine
Carrying out a policy of “war communism” - requisitioning grain from peasants, which led to discontent
Open Entente intervention
Russia was not invited to the Versailles Conference and did not receive any compensation
Consequences of the war for Russia
Political:
Defeat in the war
End of the Empire
October Revolution of 1917, Soviet power
Economic:
Militarization of the economy
Reduction of enterprises and production
Loss of a significant part of economically important territories
Social:
Significant decline in the standard of living of the population
Population decline. Declining birth rate
Famine, epidemics, diseases
From the history of the First World War:
The war lasted from July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918(officially the state of the world was approved on June 28, 1919)
38 states took part in the war (4 on the side of the German bloc: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria), the rest on the side of the Entente.
About 74 million people were mobilized, over 10 million were killed, over 20 million were wounded.
August 21-25, 1914 - battle of Charleroi, defeat of the British and French troops.
September 5-12, 1914 - defeat of Germany in the Battle of Marne, the German offensive in France was stopped.
February-December 1916- Verdun operation(“Verdun meat grinder”, more than 2 million soldiers died)
July-November 1916 - battles on the river Somme.
In the war first were used tanks, aircraft. chemical weapon.
All countries were seriously affected by the war. Only Great Britain remained the winner - new colonies were added, and the country began to own almost a quarter of the land.
November 11, 1918 - signing of an armistice between the victors (the Entente countries) and Germany in Compiègne forest(France)
Parisian peace conference (January 18, 1919 - January 21, 1920) 27 countries participated. The conference prepared the main treaties following the war. Russia - did not participate (it was considered a country that lost the war, Soviet power was considered temporary)
Versailles peace treaty signed June 28, 1919, entered into force on January 10, 1920. The treaty officially ended the First World War and secured a new redistribution of the world. Russia did not participate (for the same reasons as at the Paris Conference)
IN THE First World War FOR THE FIRST TIME:
Applied chemical weapon– Germans, near the Ypres River (hence the mustard gas) in 1915
Tanks- the British were the first to use them in the Battle of the Somme on September 15, 1915 against Turkey
Submarines- England, Germany
Aviation- by the beginning of the war, aviation was part of the armies of developed countries as auxiliary forces. (The first combat use of aircraft dates back to the Balkan Wars in 1912-1913)
Some terms
Schlieffen plan - plan for a lightning war in Germany (2-3 months) - defeat of France, without which Great Britain would not have been able to wage the war. Then a peace conference would be held and the colonies would be divided in a new way.
Trench warfare - a war in which the struggle is waged on continuous, relatively stable fronts (positions), with much attention paid to defense.
"Progressive block "- created in 1915, this is a coalition of progressive deputies in the State Duma, demanding reforms.
Organizations created during the war in Russia:
May 1915- Central Military-Industrial Committee to organize production for defense needs and distribute military orders (led by an Octobrist Guchkov)
July 10, 1915 - joint committee of the All-Russian Zemstvo and City Unions - Zemgor- supplying the army, helping it (led by Lviv, close to the cadets)
Versailles system- world order approved by the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919: strengthening the positions of the victorious countries in the war (France and Great Britain)
The First World War was a war between two coalitions of powers: Central Powers, or Quadruple Alliance(Germany, Austria-Hungary, Türkiye, Bulgaria) and Entente(Russia, France, Great Britain).
A number of other states supported the Entente in the First World War (that is, they were its allies). This war lasted approximately 4 years (officially from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918). This was the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.
During the war, the composition of the coalitions changed.
Europe in 1914
Entente
British Empire
France
Russian empire
In addition to these main countries, more than twenty states grouped on the side of the Entente, and the term “Entente” began to be used to refer to the entire anti-German coalition. Thus, the anti-German coalition included the following countries: Andorra, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Italy (from May 23, 1915), Japan, Liberia, Montenegro , Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, Uruguay.
Cavalry of the Russian Imperial Guard
Central Powers
German Empire
Austria-Hungary
Ottoman Empire
Bulgarian kingdom(since 1915)
The predecessor of this block was Triple Alliance, formed in 1879-1882 as a result of agreements concluded between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. According to the treaty, these countries were obliged to provide support to each other in the event of war, mainly with France. But Italy began to move closer to France and at the beginning of the First World War declared its neutrality, and in 1915 withdrew from the Triple Alliance and entered the war on the side of the Entente.
Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria-Hungary during the war. The Ottoman Empire entered the war in October 1914, Bulgaria in October 1915.
Some countries participated in the war partially, others entered the war already in its final phase. Let's talk about some of the features of individual countries' participation in the war.
Albania
As soon as the war began, the Albanian prince Wilhelm Wied, a German by origin, fled the country to Germany. Albania assumed neutrality, but was occupied by Entente troops (Italy, Serbia, Montenegro). However, by January 1916, most of it (Northern and Central) was occupied by Austro-Hungarian troops. In the occupied territories, with the support of the occupation authorities, the Albanian Legion was created from Albanian volunteers - a military formation consisting of nine infantry battalions and numbering up to 6,000 fighters in its ranks.
Azerbaijan
On May 28, 1918, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was proclaimed. Soon she concluded a treaty “On Peace and Friendship” with the Ottoman Empire, according to which the latter obliged “ provide assistance with armed force to the government of the Republic of Azerbaijan, if necessary to ensure order and security in the country". And when the armed formations of the Baku Council of People's Commissars began an attack on Elizavetpol, this became the basis for the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic to turn to the Ottoman Empire for military assistance. As a result, the Bolshevik troops were defeated. On September 15, 1918, the Turkish-Azerbaijani army occupied Baku.
M. Diemer "World War I. Air combat"
Arabia
By the beginning of the First World War, it was the main ally of the Ottoman Empire in the Arabian Peninsula.
Libya
The Muslim Sufi religious and political order Senusiya began to wage military operations against the Italian colonialists in Libya back in 1911. Senusia- a Muslim Sufi religious-political order (brotherhood) in Libya and Sudan, founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Great Senussi, Muhammad ibn Ali al-Senussi, and aimed at overcoming the decline of Islamic thought and spirituality and the weakening of Muslim political unity). By 1914, the Italians controlled only the coast. With the outbreak of the First World War, the Senusites received new allies in the fight against the colonialists - the Ottoman and German empires, with their help, by the end of 1916, Senussia drove the Italians out of most of Libya. In December 1915, Senusite troops invaded British Egypt, where they suffered a crushing defeat.
Poland
With the outbreak of the First World War, Polish nationalist circles in Austria-Hungary put forward the idea of creating a Polish Legion in order to gain the support of the Central Powers and with their help partially resolve the Polish question. As a result, two legions were formed - Eastern (Lviv) and Western (Krakow). The Eastern Legion, after the occupation of Galicia by Russian troops on September 21, 1914, dissolved itself, and the Western Legion was divided into three brigades of legionnaires (each with 5-6 thousand people) and in this form continued to participate in hostilities until 1918.
By August 1915, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians occupied the territory of the entire Kingdom of Poland, and on November 5, 1916, the occupation authorities promulgated the “Act of Two Emperors,” which proclaimed the creation of the Kingdom of Poland - an independent state with a hereditary monarchy and a constitutional system, the boundaries of which were clearly defined were not.
Sudan
By the beginning of the First World War, the Darfur Sultanate was under the protectorate of Great Britain, but the British refused to help Darfur, not wanting to spoil their relations with their Entente ally. As a result, on April 14, 1915, the Sultan officially declared the independence of Darfur. The Darfur Sultan hoped to receive the support of the Ottoman Empire and the Sufi order of Senusiya, with which the Sultanate established a strong alliance. A two-thousand-strong Anglo-Egyptian corps invaded Darfur, the army of the sultanate suffered a number of defeats, and in January 1917 the annexation of the Darfur Sultanate to Sudan was officially announced.
Russian artillery
Neutral countries
The following countries maintained complete or partial neutrality: Albania, Afghanistan, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg (it did not declare war on the Central Powers, although it was occupied by German troops), Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Paraguay, Persia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tibet, Venezuela, Italy (August 3, 1914 - May 23, 1915)
As a result of the war
As a result of the First World War, the Central Powers bloc ceased to exist with defeat in the First World War in the fall of 1918. When signing the truce, they all unconditionally accepted the terms of the victors. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire disintegrated as a result of the war; states created on the territory of the Russian Empire were forced to seek support from the Entente. Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland retained their independence, the rest were again annexed to Russia (directly to the RSFSR or entered the Soviet Union).
World War I- one of the largest-scale armed conflicts in human history. As a result of the war, four empires ceased to exist: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German. The participating countries lost about 12 million people killed (including civilians), and about 55 million were wounded.
F. Roubaud "The First World War. 1915"
The search for the causes of the war leads to 1871, when the process of German unification was completed and Prussian hegemony was consolidated in the German Empire. Under Chancellor O. von Bismarck, who sought to revive the system of alliances, the foreign policy of the German government was determined by the desire to achieve a dominant position for Germany in Europe. To deprive France of the opportunity to avenge defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck tried to bind Russia and Austria-Hungary to Germany with secret agreements (1873). However, Russia came out in support of France, and the Alliance of the Three Emperors disintegrated. In 1882, Bismarck strengthened Germany's position by creating the Triple Alliance, which united Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany. By 1890, Germany took the leading role in European diplomacy.
France emerged from diplomatic isolation in 1891–1893. Taking advantage of the cooling of relations between Russia and Germany, as well as Russia's need for new capital, it concluded a military convention and an alliance treaty with Russia. The Russian-French alliance was supposed to serve as a counterweight to the Triple Alliance. Great Britain has so far stood aloof from competition on the continent, but the pressure of political and economic circumstances eventually forced it to make its choice. The British could not help but be concerned about the nationalist sentiments that reigned in Germany, its aggressive colonial policy, rapid industrial expansion and, mainly, the increase in the power of the navy. A series of relatively quick diplomatic maneuvers led to the elimination of differences in the positions of France and Great Britain and the conclusion in 1904 of the so-called. "heartfelt agreement" (Entente Cordiale). Obstacles to Anglo-Russian cooperation were overcome, and in 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded. Russia became a member of the Entente. Great Britain, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente as a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance. Thus, the division of Europe into two armed camps took shape.
One of the reasons for the war was the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. In formulating their interests, the ruling circles of each European country sought to present them as popular aspirations. France hatched plans to return the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in an alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning its lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate the state destroyed by the partitions of the 18th century. Many peoples inhabiting Austria-Hungary sought national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London they believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing their main enemy - Germany.
Tensions in international relations were heightened by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905–1906; the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908–1909; finally, the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. Great Britain and France supported Italy's interests in North Africa and thereby weakened its commitment to the Triple Alliance so much that Germany could practically no longer count on Italy as an ally in a future war.
July crisis and the beginning of the war
After the Balkan Wars, active nationalist propaganda was launched against the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A group of Serbs, members of the Young Bosnia conspiratorial organization, decided to kill the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The opportunity for this presented itself when he and his wife went to Bosnia for training exercises with the Austro-Hungarian troops. Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in the city of Sarajevo by high school student Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914.
Intending to start a war against Serbia, Austria-Hungary enlisted the support of Germany. The latter believed that the war would become local if Russia did not defend Serbia. But if it provides assistance to Serbia, then Germany will be ready to fulfill its treaty obligations and support Austria-Hungary. In an ultimatum presented to Serbia on July 23, Austria-Hungary demanded that its military units be allowed into Serbia in order to, together with Serbian forces, suppress hostile actions. The answer to the ultimatum was given within the agreed 48-hour period, but it did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and on July 28 it declared war on Serbia. S.D. Sazonov, Russian Foreign Minister, openly opposed Austria-Hungary, receiving assurances of support from French President R. Poincaré. On July 30, Russia announced a general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. Britain's position remained uncertain due to its treaty obligations to protect Belgium's neutrality. In 1839, and then during the Franco-Prussian War, Great Britain, Prussia and France provided this country with collective guarantees of neutrality. Following the German invasion of Belgium on 4 August, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Now all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. Together with them, their dominions and colonies were involved in the war.
The war can be divided into three periods. During the first period (1914–1916), the Central Powers achieved superiority on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. The situation seemed to be a stalemate. This period ended with negotiations for a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory. In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry of the United States into the war on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its exit from the war. The third period (1918) began with the last major offensive of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the capitulation of the Central Powers.
First period
The Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority. The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany’s ties with overseas countries, from where copper, tin and nickel were supplied to German enterprises before the war. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on a lightning war - “blitzkrieg”.
The Germans put into effect the Schlieffen plan, which proposed to ensure rapid success in the West by attacking France with large forces through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany hoped, together with Austria-Hungary, by transferring the liberated troops, to deliver a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not implemented. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgium. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified areas of Namur and Liege, which blocked the route to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported an almost 90,000-strong expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9–17). The French gained time to form 5 armies that held back the German advance. Nevertheless, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluck found itself 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and stopped along the Paris-Verdun line on September 5. The commander of the French forces, General J. Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to launch a counteroffensive.
The First Battle of the Marne began on September 5 and ended on September 12. 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies took part in it. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French offensive on the weakened right flank made the withdrawal of the German armies to the north, to the line of the Aisne River, inevitable. The battles in Flanders on the Yser and Ypres rivers from October 15 to November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in Allied hands, ensuring communication between France and England. Paris was saved, and the Entente countries had time to mobilize resources. The war in the West took on a positional character; Germany’s hope of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable.
The confrontation followed a line running south from Newport and Ypres in Belgium, to Compiegne and Soissons, then east around Verdun and south to the salient near Saint-Mihiel, and then southeast to the Swiss border. Along this line of trenches and wire fences, the length is approx. Trench warfare was fought for 970 km for four years. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved at the cost of huge losses on both sides.
There remained hopes that on the Eastern Front the Russians would be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans towards Konigsberg. The German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were entrusted with leading the counteroffensive. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a “wedge” between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26–30 near Tannenberg and drive them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southern direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, taking several thousand people prisoner, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of Russian troops created a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial areas for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia enormous casualties, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to maintain significant forces on the Eastern Front.
Back in August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Türkiye entered the war on the side of the Central Powers bloc. At the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at the secret London talks in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy the territorial claims of Italy in the course of the post-war peace settlement if Italy came out on their side. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany.
On the western front, the British were defeated in the second battle of Ypres. Here, during battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring parties. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation, a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped at the beginning of 1915 with the goal of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, bringing Turkey out of the war and winning the Balkan states to the side of the allies, also ended in defeat. On the Eastern Front, towards the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops ousted the Russians from almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was never possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915, Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with their new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.
War at sea.
Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lines of communication open for US merchant ships. German colonies were captured, and German trade through sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine fleet - was blocked in its ports. Only occasionally did small flotillas emerge to strike British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war, only one major naval battle took place - when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British one off the Danish coast of Jutland. The Battle of Jutland May 31 – June 1, 1916 led to heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, approx. 6800 people killed, captured and wounded; the Germans, who considered themselves victors, - 11 ships and approx. 3100 people killed and wounded. Nevertheless, the British forced the German fleet to retreat to Kiel, where it was effectively blocked. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas.
Having taken a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off the Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. According to international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered “war contraband” to other neutral countries, such as the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could also be delivered to Germany. However, warring countries usually did not bind themselves to adherence to international law, and Great Britain had so expanded the list of goods considered smuggled that virtually nothing was allowed through its barriers in the North Sea.
The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Its only effective means at sea remained the submarine fleet, capable of easily bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to rescue the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships.
On February 18, 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamer Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President William Wilson protested, and the United States and Germany exchanged harsh diplomatic notes.
Verdun and Somme
Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and look for a way out of the impasse in actions on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing to launch a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front that would turn the tide of the war and force France to sue for peace. The ancient fortress of Verdun served as a key point of French defense. After an unprecedented artillery bombardment, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans advanced slowly until the beginning of July, but did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun “meat grinder” clearly did not live up to the expectations of the German command. During the spring and summer of 1916, operations on the Eastern and Southwestern Fronts were of great importance. In March, Russian troops, at the request of the allies, carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, keeping 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive on the Southwestern Front. During the fighting, under the command of A.A. Brusilov, it was possible to achieve a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80–120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina and entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To ease the pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River, near Bapaume. For four months - until November - there were continuous attacks. Anglo-French troops, having lost approx. 800 thousand people were never able to break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.
Foundations for Peace Negotiations
At the beginning of the 20th century. The methods of warfare have completely changed. The length of fronts increased significantly, armies fought on fortified lines and launched attacks from trenches, and machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth resident of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries there was almost no place left for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to titanic efforts aimed at maintaining the military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, was variously estimated to range from $208 billion to $359 billion. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the time had come to begin peace negotiations.
Second period
On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers turned to the United States with a request to transmit a note to the allies with a proposal to begin peace negotiations. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made with the aim of breaking up the coalition. Moreover, she did not want to talk about a peace that did not include the payment of reparations and recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations and on December 18, 1916, asked the warring countries to determine mutually acceptable peace terms.
On December 12, 1916, Germany proposed convening a peace conference. The German civil authorities clearly sought peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their conditions: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe.
The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take the idea of peace negotiations seriously. Germany intended to take part in the peace conference in December 1916, relying on the benefits of its military position. It ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain claimed the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to gain Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy – Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all allies.
US entry into the war
At the beginning of the war, public opinion in the United States was divided: some openly sided with the Allies; others—such as Irish Americans who were hostile to England and German Americans—supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens became increasingly inclined to side with the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, most notably the propaganda of the Entente countries and the submarine war of Germany.
On January 22, 1917, President Wilson outlined peace terms acceptable to the United States in the Senate. The main one boiled down to the demand for “peace without victory,” i.e. without annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, and the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace were made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, a world organization of states could be created that would guarantee security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare with the aim of disrupting enemy communications. The submarines blocked the Entente's supply lines and put the Allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility toward Germany among Americans, since the blockade of Europe from the West foreshadowed troubles for the United States as well. If victorious, Germany could establish control over the entire Atlantic Ocean.
Along with the above-mentioned circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to war on the side of its allies. US economic interests were directly linked to the Entente countries, as military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred by plans to develop combat training programs. Anti-German sentiment among North Americans increased even more after the publication on March 1, 1917 of Zimmermann's secret dispatch of January 16, 1917, intercepted by British intelligence and transferred to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmermann offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it supported Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By early April, anti-German sentiment in the United States had reached such intensity that Congress voted on April 6, 1917 to declare war on Germany.
Russia's exit from the war
In February 1917, a revolution took place in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The Provisional Government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded. Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardagan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey; huge concessions were made to Germany and Austria. In total, Russia lost approx. 1 million sq. km. She was also obliged to pay an indemnity to Germany in the amount of 6 billion marks.
Third period
The Germans had good reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then its withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer the eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main directions of attack. The Allies, not knowing where the attack would come from, were forced to strengthen positions along the entire front. American aid was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatist sentiments grew with alarming force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.
German offensive 1918
On the foggy morning of March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the Anglo-French united front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance.
On May 27, the Germans launched a powerful offensive against the French in the south, pushing them back to Chateau-Thierry. The situation of 1914 repeated itself: the Germans reached the Marne River just 60 km from Paris.
However, the offensive cost Germany major losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shaken. The Allies managed to neutralize German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany.
Soon the long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France.
On July 15, 1918, the Germans made their last attempt to break through at Château-Thierry. A second decisive battle unfolded on the Marne. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to abandon Reims, which, in turn, could lead to an Allied retreat along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, German troops advanced, but not as quickly as expected.
Last Allied offensive
On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began in order to relieve pressure on Chateau-Thierry. At first they advanced with difficulty, but on August 2 they took Soissons. At the Battle of Amiens on August 8, German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Previously, German Chancellor Prince von Hertling believed that by September the Allies would sue for peace. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. - That's what we thought on July fifteenth. And on the eighteenth, even the greatest optimists among us realized that everything was lost.” Some military personnel convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat.
The Allied offensive began on other fronts as well. On June 20–26, the Austro-Hungarian troops were driven back across the Piave River, their losses amounted to 150 thousand people. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the desertion of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered their remaining forces to hold off the expected invasion of Hungary. The path to Germany was open.
Tanks and massive artillery shelling were important factors in the offensive. At the beginning of August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In their Memoirs Ludendorff called August 8, the beginning of the Battle of Amiens, “a black day for the German army.” The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered into captivity almost without a fight. By the end of September even Ludendorff was ready to capitulate. After the September offensive of the Entente on the Solonik front, Bulgaria signed a truce on September 29. A month later, Türkiye capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary.
To negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed, headed by Prince Max of Baden, who already on October 5, 1918, invited President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. The Italian cavalry and armored vehicles made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters in Vittorio Veneto, the city that gave the name to the whole battle. On October 27, Emperor Charles I issued an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918, he agreed to conclude peace on any terms.
Revolution in Germany
On October 29, the Kaiser secretly left Berlin and went to the general headquarters, feeling safe only under the protection of the army. On the same day, in the port of Kiel, the crew of two warships disobeyed and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. By November 4, Kiel came under the control of the rebellious sailors. 40,000 armed men intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies in northern Germany on the Russian model. By November 6, the rebels took power in Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen. Meanwhile, the Supreme Allied Commander, General Foch, said that he was ready to receive representatives of the German government and discuss the terms of the armistice with them. The Kaiser was informed that the army was no longer under his command. On November 9, he abdicated and a republic was proclaimed. The next day, the German Emperor fled to the Netherlands, where he lived in exile until his death (d. 1941).
On November 11, at the Retonde station in the Compiegne Forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiegne Armistice. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, including Alsace and Lorraine, the left bank of the Rhine and the bridgeheads in Mainz, Koblenz and Cologne; establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer to the Allies 5,000 heavy and field guns, 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aircraft, 5,000 steam locomotives, 150,000 railway cars, 5,000 automobiles; release all prisoners immediately. The Navy was required to surrender all submarines and almost all surface fleet and return all Allied merchant ships captured by Germany. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the denunciation of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties; financial - payment of reparations for destruction and return of valuables. The Germans tried to negotiate an armistice based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, which they believed could serve as a preliminary basis for a "peace without victory." The terms of the truce required almost unconditional surrender. The Allies dictated their terms to a bloodless Germany.
Conclusion of peace
The peace conference took place in 1919 in Paris; During the sessions, agreements regarding five peace treaties were determined. After its completion, the following were signed: 1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28, 1919; 2) Saint-Germain Peace Treaty with Austria on September 10, 1919; 3) Neuilly Peace Treaty with Bulgaria November 27, 1919; 4) Trianon Peace Treaty with Hungary on June 4, 1920; 5) Peace Treaty of Sevres with Turkey on August 20, 1920. Subsequently, according to the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923, changes were made to the Treaty of Sevres.
Thirty-two states were represented at the peace conference in Paris. Each delegation had its own staff of specialists who provided information regarding the geographical, historical and economic situation of the countries on which decisions were made. After Orlando left the internal council, dissatisfied with the solution to the problem of territories in the Adriatic, the main architect of the post-war world became the “Big Three” - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George.
Wilson compromised on several important points in order to achieve the main goal of creating the League of Nations. He agreed to the disarmament of only the Central Powers, although he initially insisted on general disarmament. The size of the German army was limited and was supposed to be no more than 115,000 people; universal conscription was abolished; The German armed forces were to be staffed by volunteers with a service life of 12 years for soldiers and up to 45 years for officers. Germany was prohibited from having combat aircraft and submarines. Similar conditions were contained in peace treaties signed with Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria.
A fierce debate ensued between Clemenceau and Wilson over the status of the left bank of the Rhine. The French, for security reasons, intended to annex the area with its powerful coal mines and industry and create an autonomous Rhineland state. France's plan contradicted the proposals of Wilson, who opposed annexations and favored self-determination of nations. A compromise was reached after Wilson agreed to sign loose war treaties with France and Great Britain, under which the United States and Great Britain pledged to support France in the event of a German attack. The following decision was made: the left bank of the Rhine and a 50-kilometer strip on the right bank are demilitarized, but remain part of Germany and under its sovereignty. The Allies occupied a number of points in this zone for a period of 15 years. The coal deposits known as the Saar Basin also became the property of France for 15 years; the Saar region itself came under the control of the League of Nations commission. After the expiration of the 15-year period, a plebiscite was envisaged on the issue of statehood of this territory. Italy got Trentino, Trieste and most of Istria, but not the island of Fiume. Nevertheless, Italian extremists captured Fiume. Italy and the newly created state of Yugoslavia were given the right to resolve the issue of the disputed territories themselves. According to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was deprived of its colonial possessions. Great Britain acquired German East Africa and the western part of German Cameroon and Togo; South-West Africa, the north-eastern regions of New Guinea with the adjacent archipelago and the Samoan islands were transferred to the British dominions - the Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. France received most of German Togo and eastern Cameroon. Japan received the German-owned Marshall, Mariana and Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean and the port of Qingdao in China. Secret treaties among the victorious powers also envisaged the division of the Ottoman Empire, but after the uprising of the Turks led by Mustafa Kemal, the allies agreed to revise their demands. The new Treaty of Lausanne repealed the Treaty of Sèvres and allowed Turkey to retain Eastern Thrace. Türkiye regained Armenia. Syria went to France; Great Britain received Mesopotamia, Transjordan and Palestine; the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea were given to Italy; the Arab territory of Hejaz on the Red Sea coast was to gain independence.
Violations of the principle of self-determination of nations caused Wilson's disagreement; in particular, he sharply protested against the transfer of the Chinese port of Qingdao to Japan. Japan agreed to return this territory to China in the future and fulfilled its promise. Wilson's advisers proposed that instead of actually transferring the colonies to new owners, they should be allowed to govern as trustees of the League of Nations. Such territories were called “mandatory”.
Although Lloyd George and Wilson opposed punitive measures for damages caused, the fight on this issue ended in victory for the French side. Reparations were imposed on Germany; The question of what should be included in the list of destruction presented for payment was also subject to lengthy discussion. At first, the exact amount was not mentioned, only in 1921 its size was determined - 152 billion marks (33 billion dollars); this amount was subsequently reduced.
The principle of self-determination of nations became key for many peoples represented at the peace conference. Poland was restored. The task of determining its boundaries was not easy; Of particular importance was the transfer to her of the so-called. the “Polish corridor”, which gave the country access to the Baltic Sea, separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany. New independent states arose in the Baltic region: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland.
By the time the conference was convened, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy had already ceased to exist, in its place were Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania; the borders between these states were controversial. The problem turned out to be complex due to the mixed settlement of different peoples. When establishing the borders of the Czech state, the interests of the Slovaks were affected. Romania doubled its territory with Transylvania, Bulgarian and Hungarian lands. Yugoslavia was created from the old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, parts of Bulgaria and Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Banat as part of Timisoara. Austria remained a small state with a population of 6.5 million Austrian Germans, a third of whom lived in impoverished Vienna. The population of Hungary had decreased greatly and was now approx. 8 million people.
At the Paris Conference, an exceptionally stubborn struggle was waged around the idea of creating a League of Nations. According to the plans of Wilson, General J. Smuts, Lord R. Cecil and their other associates, the League of Nations was to become a guarantee of security for all peoples. Finally, the League's charter was adopted, and after lengthy debate, four working groups were formed: the Assembly, the Council of the League of Nations, the Secretariat and the Permanent Court of International Justice. The League of Nations established mechanisms that could be used by its member states to prevent war. Within its framework, various commissions were also formed to solve other problems.
The League of Nations Agreement represented that part of the Treaty of Versailles that Germany was also asked to sign. But the German delegation refused to sign on to it on the grounds that the agreement was not in accordance with Wilson's Fourteen Points. In the end, the German National Assembly recognized the treaty on June 23, 1919. The dramatic signing took place five days later at the Palace of Versailles, where in 1871 Bismarck, in ecstasy of victory in the Franco-Prussian War, proclaimed the creation of the German Empire.
APPLICATION
CHARTER OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
China - Lu-Tseng-Thuiang, Cuba - de Bustamente, Ecuador - Doorn y de Alzua, Greece - Venizelos, Guatemala - Mendez, Haiti - Guilbeau, Guedjas - Gaidar, Honduras - Bonilla, Liberia - King, Nicaragua - Shamorro, Panama - Burgos, Peru - Kandamo, Poland - Paderewski, Portugal - Da Costa, Romania - Bratiano, Yugoslavia - Pasic, Siam - Prince. Sharon, Czechoslovakia - Kramar, Uruguay - Buero, Germany, represented by Mr. Hermann Müller - Reich Minister, acting on behalf of the German Empire and on behalf of all the states that constitute it, and each of them separately, which, having exchanged their powers, recognized in good and due form, have agreed in the following provisions: from the date of entry into force of this treaty, the state of war ends. From this moment and subject to the provisions of this treaty, official relations between the Allied and Associated Powers with Germany and the various German states are resumed.
Part I. Treaty of the League of Nations
The High Contracting Parties, Considering that in order to develop cooperation between nations and to ensure their peace and security, certain obligations must be accepted - not to resort to war, to maintain openness in international relations based on justice and honor, and to strictly observe the requirements of international law, recognized henceforth as the rule of the actual conduct of governments, to establish the rule of justice and a jealous respect for all treaty obligations in the mutual intercourse of organized peoples—adopt this treaty establishing the League of Nations.
Art. 1. – The founding members of the League of Nations are those of the signatory states whose names appear in the annex to this treaty, as well as the states named in the annex, which accede to this treaty without any reservation by a declaration made to the Secretariat within two months from the date of entry into force of the treaty, notification of which will be made by other members of the League.
Every state, dominion or colony, freely governed and not mentioned in the annex, may be a member of the League if two-thirds of the general assembly votes for its admission, if it is given valid guarantees of its sincere intention to comply with international obligations, and if it accepts the procedure established League in respect of its forces and armaments, land, sea and air.
Each member of the League may, after a prior warning of 2 years, withdraw from the League, subject to the fulfillment by that time of all its international obligations, including the obligations of this agreement.
Art. 2. – The activities of the League as defined in this treaty are carried out through the Assembly and the Council, with the help of a permanent secretariat.
Art. 3. – The meeting consists of representatives of the members of the League.
It meets at the appointed time and at any other time, if circumstances so require, at the seat of the League or at any other place that may be designated. The Assembly is in charge of all issues within the scope of the League or that threaten the peace of the universe.
Each member of the League cannot have more than three representatives in the Assembly and has only one vote.
Art. 4 – The Council consists of representatives of the principal Allied and Associated Powers, as well as representatives of the four other members of the League. These four members of the League are freely appointed by the Assembly and for periods of time at its discretion.
Until the first appointment by the Assembly, the members of the Council are representatives of Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Greece.
With the approval of a majority of the Assembly, the Council may appoint other members of the League, whose representation will from that time be permanent in the Council. He may, with the same approval, increase the number of League members elected by the Assembly to represent the Council.
The Council shall meet when circumstances so require and at least once a year at the seat of the League or at such other place as may be designated.
The Council is in charge of all matters within the scope of the league's activities or that threaten the peace of the universe.
Each member of the League not represented in the Council is invited to send a representative to the meeting when a question of special interest to him is brought up for discussion by the Council.
Each member of the League represented in the Council has only one vote and has only one representative.
Art. 5. – With the exception of a specifically contrary provision of this treaty, subject to this treaty, decisions of the Assembly or Council are adopted by the members of the League represented in the meeting unanimously.
All issues relating to procedure that arise in the Assembly or the Council, including the appointment of questionnaire commissions on private issues, are regulated by the Assembly or the Council and are decided by a majority of the League members represented at the meeting.
The first session of the Assembly and the first session of the Council shall be convened by the President of the United States.
Art. 6. – A permanent secretariat is established at the seat of the League. It consists of the Secretary General, as well as secretaries and necessary staff.
The first General Secretary is listed in the appendix. Henceforth, the General Secretary will be appointed by the Council with the approval of a majority of the Assembly.
Secretaries and staff of the Secretariat are appointed by the General Secretary of the Assembly and Council.
The expenses of the Secretariat shall be borne by the members of the League in the proportion established for the International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union.
Art. 7. – The seat of the League is established in Geneva.
The Council may at any time decide to establish it in any other place.
All functions of the League or services associated with it, including the Secretariat, are equally available to men and women.
Representatives of members of the League and its agents shall enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunity in the performance of their duties.
Buildings and grounds occupied by the League, its services or its meetings are inviolable.
Art. 8. – The members of the League recognize that the maintenance of peace requires the limitation of national armaments to a minimum consistent with national security and with the fulfillment of the international obligations imposed by joint activities.
The Council, formed by the geographical position and special conditions of each state, prepares plans for this reduction in the form of discussion by the various governments and their decision.
These plans should be the subject of new study and, if there is reason, revision at least every 10 years.
The armament limit, as adopted by the various governments, cannot be exceeded without the consent of the Council.
Considering that the private manufacture of arms and war materials is seriously objectionable, the members of the League instruct the Council to take measures necessary to avoid undesirable consequences from this, taking into account the needs of the members of the League who cannot produce the arms and war materials necessary for their safety.
The members of the League undertake to exchange, in the most frank and complete manner, all information concerning the level of their armaments, their military, naval and air programmes, and the condition of those branches of their industries which can be utilized for war.
Art. 9. – A permanent commission will be formed to give the Council its opinion on the implementation of the resolutions of Articles 1 and 8 and in general on military, naval and air issues.
Art. 10. – Members of the League undertake to respect and protect against any external attack the territorial integrity and political independence in the present in the idea of all members of the League.
In the event of an attack, threat or danger of attack, the Council has judgment on measures to ensure the fulfillment of this obligation.
Art. 11 - It is deliberately declared that every war or threat of war, whether it directly affects one of the members of the League or not, is of interest to the League as a whole, and that the latter must take measures that can actually protect the peace of nations. In such a case, the Secretary General shall immediately convene the Council at the request of any member of the League.
It is further declared that every member of the League has the right, in a friendly manner, to call the attention of the Assembly or Council to any circumstance likely to be prejudicial to international relations and which threatens to have the effect of disturbing the peace or good agreement between nations on which peace depends.
Art. 12. – All members of the League agree that if a conflict arises between them that could lead to a break, they will subject it either to an arbitration procedure or to consideration by the Council. They also agree that in no case should they resort to war before the expiration of 3 months after the decision of the arbitrators or the conclusion of the report of the Council.
In all cases provided for in this article, the decision of the arbitrators must be rendered within a reasonable time, and the report of the Council must be drawn up within 6 months from the day it became involved in the conflict.
Art. 13. - The members of the League agree that if a conflict arises between them which, in their opinion, can be resolved by arbitration, and if this conflict cannot be settled satisfactorily by diplomatic means, then the entire matter will be subject to arbitration.
Disagreements concerning the interpretation of a treaty, on any point of international law, on the validity of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of an international obligation, or on the amount and nature of compensation due for such a violation.
The arbitration court to which the case is submitted is the court indicated by the parties or provided for by their previous agreements.
Members of the League undertake to conscientiously implement the decisions made and not resort to war against any member of the League who complies with them. If the decision is not implemented, the Council proposes measures to ensure its effectiveness.
Art. 14. – The Council is entrusted with preparing a draft of a permanent court of international justice and submitting it to the members of the League. All conflicts of an international nature that the parties submit to it will be subject to the jurisdiction of this chamber. She will also give advisory opinions on any disagreement or any question that the Council or Assembly brings to her.
Art. 15 – If a conflict arises between the members of the League that could lead to a break, and if this conflict is not subject to arbitration provided for in Art. 13, then the League members agree to move it to the Council for discussion.
To do this, it is enough that one of them notifies the Secretary General of the conflict, who does everything necessary for the purpose of the questionnaire and a full study (survey).
As soon as possible, the parties must communicate to him a statement of their case with all relevant facts and supporting documents. The Council may order their immediate publication.
The Council is trying to ensure that the conflict is resolved. If he succeeds, he publishes, to the extent he finds it useful, a message setting forth the facts, the explanations associated with them, and the forms in which the conflict is settled.
If the disagreement could not be resolved, then the Council draws up and publishes a report, adopted either unanimously or by a majority vote, in order to acquaint with the circumstances of the conflict and with the solutions recommended by it as the most fair and appropriate to the case.
Each member of the League represented in the Council may equally publish statements of the facts of the conflict and its own conclusions.
If the report of the Council is adopted unanimously, not counting the vote of the representatives of the parties in determining this unanimity, then the members of the League undertake not to resort to war against any party in accordance with the conclusion of the report.
In the event that the Council fails to have its report adopted by all its members, except representatives of the parties to the conflict, then the members of the league reserve the right to act as they deem necessary to maintain law and justice.
If one of the parties claims, and the Council recognizes, that the conflict concerns an issue that international law places under the exclusive competence of that party, the Council will state it in a report without proposing any solution.
The Council may, in all cases provided for in this article, transfer the conflict to discussion at the Assembly. The meeting must also have a judgment on the conflict when one of the parties petitions; such a request must be submitted within 14 days from the moment the conflict is brought before the Council.
In any case referred to the Assembly, the provisions of this article and art. 12 concerning the activities and powers of the Council apply equally to the activities and powers of the Assembly. It is recognized that a report adopted by the Assembly, with the approval of the representatives of the members of the League represented in the Council and a majority of the other members of the League, excluding, in each case, the representatives of the parties, has the same force as a report of the Council adopted unanimously by its members other than the representatives of the parties.
Art. 16. – If any member of the League resorts to war, contrary to the obligations assumed in articles 12, 13 or 15, then he is considered, ipso facto, to have committed an act of war against all other members of the League. These latter undertake to immediately sever all relations with him, commercial or financial, to prohibit all communications between their subjects and the subjects of the state violating the treaty, and to cease all communications, financial, commercial or personal, between the subjects of this state and the subjects of any other state, member or non-member. Leagues.
In this case, the Council shall recommend to the various governments concerned the composition of the armed forces, military, naval and air, with which the members of the League shall respectively participate in the armed forces designated to ensure respect for the obligations of the League.
The members of the League furthermore agree to give each other mutual assistance in the application of the economic and financial measures taken pursuant to this article, in order to minimize the losses and inconveniences that may result therefrom. They likewise provide mutual support to resist any special measure directed against one of them by a state violating the treaty. They shall take the necessary measures to facilitate the passage through their territory by every member of the League participating in the general activities to ensure respect for the obligations of the League.
Any member guilty of violating one of the obligations arising from the treaty may be expelled from the League. Expulsion is made by a vote of all other League members represented on the Council.
Art. 17. – In the event of a conflict between two states, of which only one is a member of the League or one does not participate in it, that state or states alien to the League are invited to submit to the obligations imposed on its members with a view to settling the conflict on terms recognized by the Council as fair . If this invitation is accepted, the provisions of Articles 12 to 16 apply, subject to modifications deemed necessary.
From the moment this invitation is sent, the Council opens a questionnaire about the circumstances of the conflict and proposes the measure that seems to it the best and most valid in this case.
If the invited state, refusing to accept the obligations of the League members in order to resolve the conflict, resorts to war against the League member, then the provisions of Article 16 apply to it.
If both parties, being invited, refuse to accept the obligations of a member of the League in order to resolve the conflict, then the Council may take all measures and make all proposals capable of preventing hostile actions and leading to a resolution of the conflict.
Art. 18. – Every treaty and international obligation concluded in the future by one of the members of the League shall be immediately registered by the Secretariat and published by it at the earliest opportunity. None of these treaties or international obligations will become binding until they are registered.
Art. 19. – The Assembly may, from time to time, invite the members of the League to begin the revision of treaties that have become inapplicable, as well as international provisions, the maintenance of which may endanger the peace of the universe.
Art. 20. – The Members of the League acknowledge, each so far as it is concerned, that this treaty cancels all obligations and agreements inter se inconsistent with its provisions, and solemnly undertake not to enter into the like in future.
If, before joining the League, one of the members assumed obligations that are incompatible with the provisions of the treaty, then he must take urgent measures to free himself from these obligations.
Art. 21. - International obligations, arbitration treaties, and local agreements, such as the Monroe Doctrine, providing for the maintenance of peace, are not considered inconsistent with any provisions of this treaty.
Art. 22. – The following principles apply to colonies and territories which, as a result of war, have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the states that formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet capable of governing themselves under the particularly difficult conditions of the modern world. The welfare and development of these peoples constitute the sacred mission of civilization, as a result of which it is appropriate to include in this treaty guarantees to ensure the implementation of this mission.
The best way to ensure the practical implementation of this principle is to entrust the guardianship of these peoples to the advanced nations who, by virtue of their resources, their experience or their geographical position, are most fit to bear this responsibility, and who are willing to assume it: they will exercise this responsibility in as mandate holders and on behalf of the League of Nations.
The nature of the mandate must vary according to the degree of development of the people, the geographical position of the territory, its economic conditions and all other similar circumstances.
Some areas which formerly belonged to the Ottoman Empire have reached such a stage of development that their existence as independent nations can be recognized provisionally, provided that the advice and assistance of the Mandatory will guide their administration until they are able to govern themselves. The wishes of these areas should be taken into account before others when choosing a mandate.
The level of development at which other peoples find themselves, especially in central Africa, requires that the mandate holder there accept the administration of the territory on terms which, together with the intersection of abuses such as the slave trade, the sale of arms and alcohol, would guarantee freedom of conscience and religion. , without any restrictions whatsoever, except those imposed by the maintenance of public order and good morals and the prohibition of constructing fortifications or military or naval bases, and giving military training to the natives, except for the purpose of police and defense of the territory, and which will provide equal Thus, for other members of the League, conditions of equality regarding exchange and trade.
Finally, there is a territory, for example, southwest Africa and some islands of the South Pacific Ocean, which, due to low population density, limited surface area, remoteness from the centers of civilization, geographical contiguity with the territory of the mandate and other circumstances, could not be better governed, than under the laws of the mandate holder, as an indivisible part of its territory, subject to the guarantees provided above, in the interests of the native population.
In all cases, the mandate holder must submit an annual report to the Council regarding the territories entrusted to him.
If the degree of power, control or administration to be exercised by the Mandatory has not been the subject of previous agreement between the members of the League, then these points will be determined by special resolution of the Council.
The Standing Committee will be tasked with receiving and examining the annual reports of the mandate holders and giving its opinion to the Council on all matters relating to the implementation of the mandates.
Art. 23. – Subject to the provisions of international conventions now existing or to be concluded in the future, the members of the League:
(a) shall endeavor to establish and maintain conditions of labor that are just and humane for men, women and children, in their own territory, as well as in all countries with which their commercial and industrial relations extend, in order to establish, for these purposes, the necessary international organizations.
b) undertake to ensure fair treatment of the native population in the territories under their administration;
c) entrust the League with general control of agreements relating to trafficking in women and children, trade in opium and other harmful drugs;
d) entrust the League with general control of the trade in arms and military supplies with those countries where control over this trade is necessary in the common interests;
e) will take the necessary measures to guarantee and maintain freedom of transit communications, as well as a fair trade regime for all members of the League, bearing in mind that the special needs of those devastated during the war of 1914-1918. areas must be taken into account;
f) make efforts to adopt international measures for the prevention and control of diseases.
Art. 24. – All international bureaus previously established by collective agreements will, subject to the consent of the parties, be placed under the authority of the League. All other international bureaus and all commissions for the regulation of affairs of international interest which shall hereafter be established shall be placed under the authority of the League.
Art. 25. – The members of the League undertake to encourage and encourage the establishment and co-operation of national voluntary organizations of the Red Cross, duly authorized and having for their object the improvement of health, the preventive protection against disease and the alleviation of suffering in the universe.
Art. 26 – Amendments to this treaty will come into force upon their ratification by those members of the League whose representatives form the Council, and by the majority of those whose representatives form the Council, and by the majority of those whose representatives form the Assembly.
Each member of the League is free not to accept changes made to the agreement, in which case he ceases to participate in the League.
Application
Founding members of the League of Nations who signed the peace treaty:
USA
Belgium
Bolivia
Brazil
British Empire
Canada
Australia
South Africa
New Zealand
India
China
Cuba
Ecuador
France
Greece
Guatemala
Haiti
Gejas
Honduras
Italy
Japan
Liberia
Nicaragua
Panama
Peru
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Serbo-Croat-Slovenian State
Siam
Czechoslovakia
Uruguay
States invited to join the treaty:
Argentina
Chile
Colombia
Denmark
Spain
Norway
Paraguay
Netherlands
Persia
Salvador
Sweden
Switzerland
Venezuela
II. First Secretary General of the League of Nations - Hon. Sir James Eric Drummond
Literature:
History of the First World War, in 2 vols. M., 1975
Ignatiev A.V. Russia in the imperialist wars of the early 20th century. Russia, the USSR and international conflicts of the first half of the 20th century. M., 1989
To the 75th anniversary of the start of the First World War. M., 1990
Pisarev Yu.A. Secrets of the First World War. Russia and Serbia in 1914–1915. M., 1990
Kudrina Yu.V. Turning to the origins of the First World War. Paths to safety. M., 1994
The First World War: controversial problems of history. M., 1994
The First World War: pages of history. Chernivtsi, 1994
Bobyshev S.V., Seregin S.V. The First World War and prospects for social development in Russia. Komsomolsk-on-Amur, 1995
The First World War: Prologue of the 20th Century. M., 1998
On June 28, the Bosnian city of Sarajevo was especially crowded and lively. Archduke Franz Ferdinand himself arrived in the province recently annexed to the empire to watch the exercises of the glorious Austrian troops. The royal lady moved around the city in a convertible, not particularly concerned about her safety. Two shots fired from the Browning killed the Archduke's wife and himself. It was these few seconds that divided time into “before” and “after” in world history.
Source: tass.ruBeginning of the First World War
However, hostilities did not begin immediately after the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. The official declaration of war was preceded by a month of tension, the so-called “July Crisis”. Austria-Hungary sent a 10-point ultimatum to the Serbian government. In fact, this was gross interference in the internal affairs of the Balkan country. At the same time, it was no secret that the terrorists who made a successful attempt on the life of a representative of the Austrian ruling house of Habsburg were actively supported by some government and military figures in Serbia. [Collection: The beginning of the First World War]
The ultimatum was handed to the Serbs on July 23. On the 25th the Austrians received an answer. Serbia agreed to fulfill almost all points, with the exception of one - to allow the Austrians into its territory to carry out investigative measures. Many contemporaries assessed this response as a peace-loving gesture on the part of Serbia, but Austria-Hungary was already preparing for a forceful solution to the problem. Germany also supported her in this.
Source: vsefony. wordpress.com
Russia, having learned about what was happening in the Balkans, began a partial mobilization of the population liable for military service. This met with decisive resistance from the German Empire. Despite the hesitations of Nicholas II and the threats of Wilhelm II, on July 30, general mobilization in the Romanov state was announced. Russia's ally France also began military preparations. The local conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, which began on July 28, quickly escalated into a pan-European war - on August 1, the war between Russia and Germany began, on August 3 France entered the fray, and the next day - Great Britain.
Participants of the First World War
On the battlefields of the four-year world massacre, the sons of many states laid down their lives. In addition to the main characters: the Entente consisting of Russia, France, Great Britain and Italy, which joined them in 1915, on the one hand, and the bloc of the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) on the other, the dominions and satellites of the above took part in the war countries [Collection: Participants of the First World War]
Most states sought to solve their foreign policy problems; most often, aggressive goals were set. However, for some countries the war turned out to be a literal struggle for survival. This concerned, first of all, Serbia and Belgium.
Source: history-belarus.by
Austria-Hungary sought to solve the Balkan problem and limit Russian influence in the region. Germany dreamed of a more worthy “place in the sun” and inclusion in the colonial system. In this it was opposed by Great Britain, which was also not against increasing its territories and expanding its sales market. France's goal was revenge against Germany, which defeated the country in 1871.
The Russian Empire hoped to strengthen its influence in the Balkans and solve the problem of the Black Sea straits. The dream of Constantinople became an idea that inspired many statesmen and military leaders to wage a difficult war. The Ottoman Empire was, to some extent, fighting a war to the death, but the leaders also had certain geopolitical plans - mainly in the Caucasus.
They did not pursue aggressive goals in the classical sense of the United States - by entering the war in 1917, the Americans significantly changed the situation in favor of the Entente. President Woodrow Wilson hoped that after the World War, the United States would become the world's arbiter, the moral authority for the rest of the world. Including, for this purpose, according to Wilson, it was created.
World War I operations
In the public consciousness, the First World War is associated primarily with trench life, dirty trenches, and senseless slaughter. So it was - starting in the autumn of 1914, after the unsuccessful march of the Kaiser’s troops to Paris and the “miracle on the Marne”, the front stabilized and snaked from the coast to the Swiss border.
Source: regnum.ru This line of contact would remain virtually unchanged until 1918. The warring parties tried to change the current stalemate, but the strategic effect of the operations was negligible, and the loss of life was unprecedented. Old Europe has never seen such bloodshed before. [Collection: Operations of the First World War]
In 1915, the Allies tried to break through the front at Artois and Ypres, but the front line remained virtually unchanged. The losses were enormous: during the autumn operation in Artois and Champagne, the sides lost about 350 thousand people killed and wounded.
The year 1916 was marked by two major operations, the names of which became household names. This is the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. In both battles, the sides lost a total of about two million people killed and wounded. The Somme and Verdun remain examples of enormous human tragedy and the senselessness of war.
In 1917, the United States entered the war, and the strategic situation changed in favor of the Entente. The Allies were now concentrating their forces for a decisive blow against the Central Powers and switched to secondary theaters of war. Realizing that time was working in the enemy's favor, Germany launched a powerful offensive on the Western Front in 1918. The Kaiser's troops achieved major successes, but due to the lack of reserves and limited material resources, victory turned into defeat. In August, the Entente launched a counter-offensive, which ended with the signing on November 11, 1918.
Military operations took place all over the world. Military blocs collided in the vastness of the Middle East, in the Alps on the Italian front, carried out raids in African colonies, and acted against each other’s sea communications. But the fate of the war was decided on the fields of Flanders and Artois, near Ypres and among the forts of Verdun.
Russia in World War I
In August 1914, the Russian Empire had not yet managed to implement the program for modernizing the army and navy. The tsarist army has not waged major wars since the clash with. The strength was the number - the government was able to mobilize more than 5 million people, in peacetime 1.5 million served in the army. [Collection: Russia in the First World War]
For comparison, Germany had less than a million soldiers and officers in peacetime; after mobilization, this number increased by almost 4 million people.
In August 1914, the Russian army launched an offensive in East Prussia, responding to the call of France. Initial success gave way to the defeat of Samsonov's army in the Masurian swamps in September. Russian troops retreated to their original positions.
During the autumn months, the German command made attempts to eliminate the so-called “Polish salient” - the Russian Kingdom of Poland. The army was forced to abandon Western Poland, but at the same time carried out successful offensives in Austrian Galicia and Bukovina.
In winter, as a result of the Sarakamysh operation on the Caucasian front, Russian troops stopped the Turkish advance and entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. The Caucasian theater of military operations remained the most successful for Russia throughout the war.
The next year, 1915, the German command planned to withdraw Russia from the war. The “great retreat” of the Russian army began. The troops suffered heavy losses, and the German offensives greatly affected the mood of soldiers and officers. Russia lost its conquests in Galicia and Bukovina and was forced to leave Poland, part of the Baltic states and Belarus. However, she remained in the war.
In 1916, the Allies tried to break German resistance. The Brusilov breakthrough, organized in the summer of 1916, became an important link in the Somma-Verdun-Isonzo chain. The Russians advanced 100 kilometers behind the front line, forcing Germany to transfer reserves to patch up holes. But the success turned out to be local.
In 1917, against the backdrop of the revolution, the Russian army began to disintegrate, and cases of desertion and fraternization became more frequent. The July operation, the so-called “Kerensky offensive,” failed miserably. Russia, now Bolshevik, withdrew from the war in March 1918, signing the difficult Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Peace of Versailles
The First World War turned out to be the boundary between the golden nineteenth century and the as yet unknown twentieth century. The victorious powers created a new world order, and the Treaty of Versailles was to become one of its most important pillars. , now a republic, faced a difficult test on the sidelines of the Paris Peace Conference. [Collection: Peace of Versailles]
Discussions about the future of the losing country took many months. The Allies could not come to a common denominator - there were too many important issues related to Germany and the need to prevent a similar military conflict in the future. As a result of difficult disputes, by June an agreed upon version of the peace agreement was developed, which was signed on July 28, 1919 (the day of the assassination of the Archduke) in the Palace of Versailles. Ratification took place in early 1920.
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Books
- History of the First World War, Liddell-Harth Basil Henry. Sir Basil Liddell Hart is the most famous English military historian and theorist of military art, who had a great influence on the development of the theory of strategy as a whole. "History of the First World War"…
- History of the First World War 1914-1918, Liddell Hart B.. Sir Basil Liddell Hart is the most famous English military historian and theorist of military art, who had a great influence on the development of the theory of strategy as a whole. "History of the First World War" ...
