Chapter XVIII. The entry of capitalism into the imperialist stage. The beginning of the struggle of the imperialist powers for the redivision of the world. Causes of the First World War. The struggle for a new redivision of the world What are the reasons for the struggle for the redivision of the world
Ottoman Empire for humanity? Why are the Balkans
"powder keg"? Are there settlement options?
the Balkan issue?
2. Reasons for the struggle for the redistribution of the world through the eyes
diplomats, members of the Second International,
pacifists.
3. American diplomats about the Spanish-American
war.
4. British diplomats and representatives of the Boers about
"criminal war".
5. Japanese diplomats on Japanese foreign policy.
6. Military blocs - the path to peace or war?
7. Pacifists and Representatives
II International: nationalism is the source of wars.
unification of Germany and Korea
3) non-interference in the internal affairs of the socialist countries
4) support for national liberation and revolutionary forces in third world countries
2.Event foreign policy USSR in the 1960s:
1) participation in the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
2) creation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
3) the entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia
4) rupture of diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia
3. What was the main direction of the foreign policy of the USSR in the 1960s-1970s?
1) strengthening the socialist camp
2) cold war escalation
3) the struggle for the elimination of military blocs
4) the withdrawal of Soviet troops from third world countries
Option 1 1. What is the main result of the struggle for power after Stalin's death? a) the economicpolitics
b) all the fullness of state and party power passed into the hands of
c) there were changes in the leadership of the party
2. Who was blamed for the repressions of the 1930s?
a) to Beria and Yezhov
b) Molotov and Malenkov
c) to the organs of the NKVD
3. When did the development of virgin lands begin?
a) in 1953 b) in 1954 c) in 1959 d) in 1962
4. What is the difference between Khrushchev's program and Malenkov's program in the development of agriculture?
a) Khrushchev advocated greater independence of collective farms
b) Khrushchev proposed to increase grain production at the expense of virgin lands
c) increased spending on social development villages
5. What measures relate to the economic policy pursued by Khrushchev?
a) replacement of ministries by economic councils
b) accelerated development of light industry enterprises
c) experiment with the introduction of cost accounting
6. What successes have you achieved Soviet science during the thaw years?
a) landing a man on the moon
b) construction of a nuclear icebreaker
c) the creation of a jet passenger liner
7. Who from Soviet writers with his work "The Thaw" gave the name to the Khrushchev times?
a) A. Solzhenitsyn
b) F. Panferov
c) I. Ehrenburg
8. In what year was the Warsaw Pact formed?
9. What agreements were concluded between the USSR and the USA after the Caribbean crisis?
a) the dismantling of Soviet missiles in Cuba
b) the withdrawal of American missiles from Turkey
c) the USSR's refusal of economic assistance to Cuba
d) the closure of the American military base in Cuba
10. In which country of Eastern Europe did the Soviet Union send its troops in 1956?
a) Bulgaria
b) Czechoslovakia
c) Hungary
a) housing construction
in) free education
d) adoption of the law on pensions
Option 2
1. What did the strengthening of Khrushchev's position in the struggle for power lead to?
a) to the establishment of a new cult of personality b) to the resignation of G.K. Zhukov
c) to strengthen the position of Malenkov
2. When did the 20th Party Congress take place?
3. Find the correct statement:
a) Khpyshchev's economic program contributed to the extensive development of the economy
b) Khrushchev's economic program contributed to the intensive development of the economy
c) Khrushchev's economic program contributed to the formation of a market economy
4. Why, despite the successes of social policy, Khrushchev's resignation did not provoke protests from the Soviet people?
a) Khrushchev's policy exacerbated national contradictions
b) dissatisfaction with the increased role of the CPSU grew
c) there was an increase in the prices of consumer goods
d) the size of the army was significantly reduced
5. What events revived cultural life in the USSR?
a) regular meetings of figures of the Central Committee and culture
b) opening of the Moscow Film Festival
c) holding international exhibitions
6. Which of the following is a sign of a "thaw"
a) the emergence of anti-Stalinist works of literature
b) the beginning of rehabilitation
c) weakening the role of the communist party
d) expansion of international contacts of the intelligentsia
7. When was the first artificial satellite launched?
8. When was the treaty banning nuclear weapons tests in three areas?
9. Why was there an increase in the influence of CCC R in 00 N?
a) there was a weakening of the role of the United States
b) the appearance of ballistic missiles in the USSR
c) support Soviet Union anti-colonial movement.
10. During his resignation, Khrushchev was accused of:
a) in voluntarism
b) in the reduction of the army
c) in debunking the "cult of personality"
11. The successes of the social policy of the USSR can be considered:
a) housing construction
b) reduction of tariff rates in production
c) free education
d) adoption of the law on pensions
USSR under N.S. Khrushchev 2 option A1. When did the XX Party Congress take place? 1945 1947 1953 1956 A2. Who won the power struggleafter Stalin's death? Zhukov G. Malenkov V. Molotov N. KhrushchevA3. What is the name of the restoration of the rights of repressed citizens? Deportation Denazification Rehabilitation democratizationA4. What caused the resignation of N.S. Khrushchev? His ill health Requirements broad masses of the population Demand-ultimatum of the President of the United States Attempts by N.S. Khrushchev will weaken the power of the party and economic apparatusA5. What applies to the activities of N.S. Khrushchev in the social sphere? Depriving collective farmers of freedom of movement Development of personal subsidiary plots Large-scale housing construction Introduction of tuition fees in universitiesA6. G. Malenkov, unlike N. Khrushchev, proposed: Eliminate collective farms and state farms Accelerate the development of light and Food Industry To speed up the development of heavy industry To carry out measures for the personal interest of collective farmers A7. Creation of economic councils in the late 1950s. led: To increased centralization of industrial management To a reduction in the army of managers To disunity in the sectoral mechanism of the Soviet economy To a reduction in the rights of local authorities. A8. What was the achievement of domestic science in the 1950s-1960s? Vavilova Release of the first color film in the USSR Creation of workers' schoolsA9. What was the positive result of the "thaw" in culture? Expansion of relations with the foreign public Establishment of an ideological framework in creativity Destruction of party and government control over the spiritual sphere Proclamation of social realism as the only trend in literature and artA10. In whose works was the problem of illegal repressions raised? In the works of the Strugatsky brothers, K.G. Paustovsky A.L. Barto A.I. Solzhenitsyn A11. What did the creation of a system of compulsory polytechnic schools in the late 1950s lead to? To the elimination of illiteracy To a decline in prestige higher education To the appearance of a large number of unemployed To a decrease in the general education of schoolchildren.B1. What event is mentioned in the memoirs? It was a long and not very truthful speech, made behind closed doors in front of the country's leadership, who listened to it with stone faces ... Khrushchev spoke about many of Stalin's crimes, but deftly kept silent about the crimes of which he himself was accused. Answer : ______________IN 2. Arrange in chronological order: A. Death of I.V. StalinaB. Establishment of OVDV. Speech by N.S. Khrushchev with a report at the XX Congress of the CPSU "On the cult of personality and its consequences" of the partyG. The first manned flight into space1.2.3.4.
SECTION V HISTORY OF THE XX - THE BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURIES
TOPIC 14 The World in 1900-1914
The World at the Beginning of the 20th Century
The World at the Beginning of the 20th Century
Countries of the world by the beginning of the twentieth century. differed not only in their position as metropolises and colonies. The gap between the major powers and the rest of the world was determined primarily by the level economic development. In most countries Western Europe, North America and Japan developed an industrial society. These countries have gone through the industrial revolution. The new technique was not only widely used in industry, but was increasingly used in agriculture, which later led to fundamental changes in this ancient sphere of human activity. In Africa and most of Asia, industrialization has not yet begun.
Political development in the early twentieth century.
The form of government in the early twentieth century. monarchies prevailed. All the states of America were republics, and in Europe they were only France and Switzerland. However, in most states, the power of the monarch was limited by popular representatives (Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Japan, etc.). In some countries, the monarch continued to play a significant role in government. Elections were nowhere universal (for example, women were deprived of voting rights). Even in many republics there were despotic regimes.
Fight for the redivision of the world.
As a result of the improvement of transport, it has become much easier to transport raw materials and finished products over long distances. This is what pushed the developed countries to new colonial conquests. As a result, a struggle for the redivision of the world unfolded. This course was especially persistently taken by the states that were late to the division of the colonies, but then turned into powerful industrial powers.
In 1898, the United States attacked Spain under the slogan of the liberation of its colonies. As a result, Cuba gained formal independence, which actually became the possession of the United States. Without any special formalities, they acted with the islands of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The United States also ceded the Hawaiian Islands and the Panama Canal zone.
Germany in the 19th century seized South-West and South-East Africa (Cameroon, Togo), bought from Spain the Caroline and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Japan took over Taiwan, sought to establish itself in Korea. But both Germany and Japan considered themselves deprived colonies.
In addition to the Spanish-American War of 1898, the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) are considered the first wars for the redivision of the world. During the Anglo-Boer War, two Boer republics in South Africa (Transvaal and Orange) went to England. As a result of the victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Japan established itself in Korea and strengthened its position in China.
Problems of modernization.
Many countries faced the problem of modernization - economic, social, political and cultural transformations aimed at forming a society that met the requirements of the era. The states of Western Europe served as a model. However, in the XIX century. the only fairly successful experience of modernization took place in Japan after the Meiji reforms. These reforms paved the way for rapid industrial development, the spread of civil liberties, and education. At the same time, the Japanese did not abandon their traditions, did not destroy their usual way of life.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Great Britain was the largest colonial power. This was the result of the weakening of such large colonial powers in the past as Spain and Portugal, as well as successful colonial wars for Great Britain with France and Holland. Great Britain conquered the Cape Colony and the island of Ceylon from Holland. The active colonial policy of Great Britain was accompanied by a decrease in participation in European affairs. Until the beginning of the 20th century. Great Britain pursued a policy of "brilliant isolation", according to which it refused to enter into any alliances in Europe.
The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century is called the era of imperialism, the struggle of the great powers for the expansion of colonial possessions. The capitalist monopolies needed the colonies as sources of raw materials and markets.
Events
Second quarter of the 19th century. Almost all of India became dependent on Great Britain. India became Britain's main supplier of cotton, a raw material for the cotton industry.
1830. - Beginning of the French conquest of Algeria.
1838-1842. - Great Britain makes an attempt to conquer Afghanistan, but to no avail.
1839. - China is taking steps to prevent the opium trade. In response, Great Britain in 1840 launched a war with China, which is known as the First Opium War.
1840-1842. - First Opium War. It ended with the signing of the Treaty of Nanjing, according to which five Chinese ports were opened for English merchant ships. Hong Kong Island passed to the UK.
France and the United States are seeking to conclude treaties with China similar to Nanjing.
1854. - The United States and Japan signed an agreement to open two Japanese ports for foreign trade. The treaty was concluded as a result of a US naval expedition to Japan. Following the United States, Russia, Great Britain and France concluded such treaties with Japan.
1856-1860. - The Second Opium War ended with the signing of a peace treaty in Beijing. England acquired the right to trade opium in China. France and Great Britain were given the right to send diplomatic missions to Beijing, and the subjects of these two countries were allowed to travel throughout China.
1859-1869. - Construction of the Suez Canal. The navigable canal that connected the Red and Mediterranean seas. It was built mainly with the money of the French colonizers.
1859. - France conquers the city of Saigon and the entire southern part of Vietnam.
1860. - Great Britain imposed an unequal treaty on Nepal (an unequal treaty whose unfavorable terms for one of the parties are imposed at the expense of military superiority).
1860. - Defined the border between Russia and China. The city of Vladivostok was founded.
1862. - military expedition of Great Britain, France and Spain to Mexico due to non-payment of external debt. It ended in 1867, when France was forced to withdraw its troops.
1875. - Japan receives the Kuril Islands, Russia - Sakhalin.
1878-1880. - Britain is trying to subdue Afghanistan.
1881. - France captures Tunisia.
1882. - Egypt becomes a British semi-colony.
1883-1885. French conquest of Madagascar.
1884. - founded German colonies in Africa: German South-West Africa, German East Africa.
1884-1885. - Berlin International (African) Conference. It was convened to decide the status of territories in the Congo Basin (Africa), which were claimed by several states. The conference was attended by representatives of 14 states. The Free State of the Congo, administered by Belgium, was formed (since 1908, the Congo is a colony of Belgium). All states were given equal opportunities to use resources and trade.
1894-1895. - Sino-Japanese War. It led to China's abandonment of Korea, which became dependent on Japan.
Late 19th century. - territorial seizures in China. 1897 - Germany occupied part of the Shandong Peninsula (China) and received these territories on lease for 99 years. The territories of China were also leased to Russia, France, Great Britain.
1898. - Spanish-American War. The result was the proclamation of the formal independence of Cuba (which came under the influence of the United States). The United States received the Philippines, Puerto Rico in the West Indies, and Guam in the Pacific.
1899-1902. - Anglo-Boer War. The Boers are descendants of settlers from Holland who founded the Cape Colony in South Africa. After the capture of the Cape Colony by Great Britain in the early XIX century. the Boers moved deep into the continent, where they founded two independent republics - the Transvaal Republic and the Orange Republic. After deposits of diamonds and gold were discovered on the territory of the Boers in 1867, prospectors and colonial troops moved there. As a result of the war, the Boer republics lost their independence.
Members
As a result of the 19th century European powers of colonial policy, many states of Asia and Africa have lost their independence. In Africa, by the beginning of the 20th century, only one state, Ethiopia, retained its independence.
The struggle for spheres of influence in the Balkans was one of the causes of the First World War (see lesson).
By the beginning of the new century, in economic and political literature, as well as in the press, the concept of "imperialism" was widely used to characterize new trends in the economic life and politics of the main capitalist countries. This concept has been invested with different content, but for the most part it was used to define the expansion and expanding colonial policy of large powers. Only V. I. Lenin, on the basis of a deep theoretical analysis of the totality of economic and political changes that have taken place in the world, gave a comprehensive and truly scientific definition of imperialism as monopoly capitalism, the highest and last stage of capitalism.
World economic crisis 1900-1903 and development of monopolies
The process of growing old, "free" capitalism into monopoly capitalism - imperialism ended at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The turning point in the development of monopolies was the deep economic crisis that engulfed in 1900-1903. European countries and the United States of America.
The industrial cycle that began after the crisis of 1890 developed unevenly, but its results were very significant. The economic recovery in recent XIX years in. passed under the sign of an unprecedented acceleration in the development of heavy industry: within a few years, world coal production increased by almost 65%, iron smelting - by more than 70%, and steel production - by almost three times. Each country had its own characteristics of industrial growth. In Russia, it was associated primarily with the growth of railway construction. In the United States of America and in Germany enterprises of ferrous metallurgy, the shipbuilding and electrical industries, as well as dwellings, commercial premises, etc., were intensively built; in Germany, in addition, the military industry played a major role. In England, along with the rise of heavy and light industry, there was also an increase in foreign trade; the construction of military courts continued to grow even during the years of crisis. In France, metallurgy, as well as electrical engineering and other new branches of production, did not yet have of great importance, while the light industry, in particular the textile industry, developed at a relatively high pace. During the years of industrial growth, there was a significant expansion of the world market. In the same years, in a number of colonial and semi-colonial countries - in Asia, Africa, South America, as well as in Australia - the construction of railways intensified. “The construction of gigantic railways, the expansion of the world market and the growth of trade,” wrote V. I. Lenin, “all this caused an unexpected revival of industry, the growth of new enterprises, a frantic pursuit of a market for sales, a pursuit of profit, the foundation of new societies, attraction to the production of a mass of new capital, partly made up of small savings of small capitalists. It is not surprising that this frenzied worldwide pursuit of new unknown markets has led to a huge crash. V. I. Lenin, Lessons of the Crisis, Works, vol. 5, pp. 74-75.).
A new crisis came suddenly. Its first symptoms appeared in the summer of 1899 in Russia; here it turned out to be the deepest and longest. In the middle of 1900, the crisis began to manifest itself in Germany, and after it, England, France and other countries of Western Europe were drawn into its maelstrom. Foreign trade dropped sharply. Many banks declared bankruptcy, and even the largest ones were in danger of collapse. In the United States of America, the crisis arose somewhat later: in 1901, on the New York Stock Exchange, the shares of the largest industrial monopolies of the Steel Trust (and others) began to fall catastrophically, after which a sharp decline in production began in a number of decisive industries - coal, metallurgical, shipbuilding , cotton; The crisis in the United States reached its greatest depth in 1903-1904, when its mitigation was already planned in European countries. In general, the world economic crisis of 1900-1903, developing unevenly, had one very significant feature: it gave a powerful impetus to the processes of concentration of production and centralization of capital. Contributing to the death of some industrial enterprises and at the same time to the strengthening of others, more powerful in technical and economic respects, this crisis was marked by an increase in the role of monopolies, the expansion and strengthening of their dominance.
The rapid progress of technology contributed to the acceleration of the process of concentration of capital. AT last years 19th and early 20th centuries the steam engine began to be replaced by electric power. New branches of industry arose and grew - electrical, automotive and others. The chemical industry of the main capitalist countries has created dozens of previously unknown products; chemistry was introduced into metallurgical production, the textile industry. The invention of a method for manufacturing high-quality (tungsten) steel made a revolution in mechanical engineering, allowing the creation of machines with higher productivity and the start of their mass production. Rapid technological progress was accompanied by specialization, and in some industries (coal, metallurgical, chemical) and a combination of production.
Equipped with the latest technology, enterprises required such large investments that not only the individual funds of even the richest capitalists, but also the individual capitals of entire joint-stock companies were insufficient for them. It was profitable for several dozens of the largest enterprises in any industry to come to an agreement among themselves, especially since the association promised an unprecedented amount of profit. Already at the beginning of the XX century. monopolies began to acquire decisive importance in the economy of capitalism.
Germany was then the classic country of monopoly capital, where monopolies arose earlier and gripped production more strongly than in other countries.
In 1905, there were at least 385 cartels in Germany, uniting 12,000 enterprises. They accounted for about three-fifths of all output and dominated the main branches of industry.
In the United States of America, the process of monopolization began in the second half of the 1980s, but it unfolded with all its might in late XIX and in the early years of the 20th century. In 1901, at the beginning of the world economic crisis, 75 trusts were created here, uniting more than 1600 enterprises with a total share capital of almost 3 billion dollars, and in 1903-1905. monopolized enterprises provided 70% of all steel production in the country, 75% of coal, 84% of oil, etc.
In somewhat different forms and more slowly, monopolies were created in England, France, Russia, Japan and other capitalist countries.
The aim of the monopolies was to secure a profit far in excess of the usual average profit. Monopolies limited competition, but at the same time caused its extreme aggravation. The competitive struggle went on both among the participants in monopolistic associations for a share in production and profits, and against other monopolies, against all competitors and rivals who were not part of this association, for establishing their dominance over them. The monopolists used various methods to take away part of the profits from the owners of non-monopoly enterprises and ruined the petty bourgeoisie. In addition, by artificially raising the prices of commodities, they shifted the burden of monopolistically high prices onto the consumer and thereby further worsened the situation of the working masses.
Banking Monopolies and the Emergence of Finance Capital
The centralization of banking in some countries proceeded even faster than the centralization of industry. Large banks, absorbing or subjugating less powerful ones, turned into banking monopolies. At the beginning of the XX century. Germany was dominated by the six largest banks; in France - three or four; in the United States, the two most powerful banks served and controlled the Rockefeller and Morgan financial groups.
Thanks to the colossal concentration of money capital, the banks began to dispose of enormous social capital and became co-owners of the means of production in industry and throughout the economy. The formation of banking monopolies, in turn, accelerated the monopolization of production. By threatening to forfeit credit and other measures of economic pressure, banking capital forced the commercial, industrial and transport enterprises it controlled to move faster along the path of association into cartels and trusts. It was enough for the bank to seize a controlling stake in a joint-stock company in order to subjugate it to itself. Such a company often itself controlled a number of "subsidiaries" of companies, which also turned out to be involved in the sphere of influence of the bank. Thus, a few of the largest financiers who dominated a bank or a group of banks were given the opportunity to dispose of gigantic capitals, the largest enterprises and even entire industries. The system of inclusion of directors and other representatives of banks in the supervisory boards of commercial, industrial and transport enterprises, insurance companies and, on the other hand, the entry of industrial monopolists into the boards and councils of banks, has become widespread.
One of the ways to further enrich the financial oligarchy was speculation in securities issued by joint-stock companies. Taking part in the creation of joint-stock companies and banks or reorganizing them, the financial oligarchy usually took possession of a significant part of the shares and kept them in their safes, in order to then put them on sale, appropriate huge profits, sometimes twice the original capital invested.
By supplying the state on a large scale, especially in connection with the constant arms race, by placing state loans, and finally by receiving subsidies from the state treasury, powerful financial and industrial monopolists increased their wealth.
The export of capital. International monopolies and the division of the world between them
The monopoly alliances of the capitalists of the major powers began to enter into agreements with each other, to create international cartels with the aim of dividing the sales markets and spheres of investment of capital. However, the creation of international monopolies did not lead to a weakening of imperialist contradictions. On the contrary, it was a step towards a new explosion of these contradictions on the basis of an even sharper competition for the redivision of the world market. The struggle between the two giant oil trusts - the Anglo-Dutch Royal Dutch Shell and the American Standard Oil - unfolded in Mexico, Indonesia, Venezuela, Romania, Galicia - everywhere where oil deposits were discovered, as well as in all oil markets. products. At the same time, international monopolies began to take shape in the electrical engineering and some other branches of industry. The struggle of the monopolists for spheres of domination, for the "right" to enslave and plunder other peoples gave rise to incessant clashes between the imperialist powers, entwined into a tangle of irreconcilable contradictions.
In the era of imperialism, the military-strategic role of the colonies and dependent countries as strongholds and suppliers of cheap cannon fodder also increased. Even when a particular colony did not bring immediate economic or strategic benefits, the imperialist powers fought for its possession, because only monopoly possession created a guarantee against the encroachments of rivals. At the beginning of the XX century. the economic signs of a new historical stage in the development of capitalism: the domination of monopolies, the formation of finance capital, the special importance of the export of capital, in contrast to the export of goods; the beginning of the economic division of the world by international unions of capitalists, the completion of the territorial division of the world by the largest capitalist powers ( See V. I. Lenin, Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Soch., vol. 22, p. 253.).
In general, capitalism during this period developed immeasurably faster than before. But its growth lagged far behind the opportunities provided by the achievements of science and technology. The domination of monopolies often became an obstacle to the introduction of the achievements of science and technology into production. The establishment of monopoly prices often eliminated the incentives for technological progress. “Of course,” V. I. Lenin wrote, “the ability to lower production costs and increase profits through the introduction of technical improvements works in favor of changes. But the tendency to stagnation and decay, characteristic of monopoly, continues to operate in its turn, and in individual branches of industry, in individual countries, for certain periods of time it gains the upper hand. Ibid., p. 263.).
Imperialism acted as a profoundly reactionary force fighting against democracy and striving to establish its rule, to enslave the broad masses of the people. The content of the foreign and colonial policy of the imperialist powers was the striving to intensify oppression over the overwhelming majority of mankind. Imperialism tried to infiltrate philosophy and history, literature and art to one degree or another with the reactionary ideas, tastes and ideas of the ruling classes, which were implanted with the aim of corrupting the masses or distracting them from the struggle for economic, political, social and national liberation. In particular, a large place in the ideology of imperialism was occupied by racial theory in its various versions: in Germany, these were statements about the historical mission of the “Germanic race”, allegedly called upon to dominate the rest of the European peoples, especially the Slavic ones; in England and the United States, the superiority of the "Anglo-Saxon race" over all peoples; in France - about the superiority of the "Latin race" and "Gallic culture"; in Japan, the idea of its "divine mission" to lead China and, moreover, all of Asia took root. Racial theories designed to justify military and colonial aggression were one of the most typical and repulsive manifestations of the corrupting spirit that imperialism introduced into all spheres of social, political and spiritual life.
2. The first wars of the era of imperialism. The beginning of the struggle for the redivision of the world
The struggle of the capitalist powers for the territorial division of the world gave way with the advent of the era of imperialism to an even sharper struggle for its redistribution in accordance with the changed balance of forces. The "old" colonial powers - Great Britain, France, Russia - sought to maintain and further expand their empires. Germany, the United States of America, Japan and Italy, which had recently entered the arena of colonial policy, demanded their "place in the sun", that is, their large share in the plunder of the peoples of the colonial and semi-colonial countries. Entering into sharp rivalry, the imperialist powers did not stop at the use of armed force. V. I. Lenin wrote that “under capitalism, no other basis for the division of spheres of influence, interests, colonies, etc., is inconceivable, except for taking into account the strength of the participants in the division, .. for the uniform development of individual enterprises, trusts, industries, countries under capitalism can not" ( V. I. Lenin, Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Soch., vol. 22, p. 281.). The inevitable companions of monopoly capitalism were the predatory imperialist wars that it engendered.
The advent of the era of monopoly capitalism was marked by three wars of an imperialist nature - the Spanish-American, Anglo-Boer and Russian-Japanese.
Spanish–American War of 1898
The first of these wars was unleashed by American imperialism. In an effort to acquire new colonies, he hoped to carry out his plans by redistributing the colonial possessions of the weaker and backward powers. To this end, the ruling circles of the United States decided to use the serious difficulties experienced by the decrepit Spanish monarchy. Under her rule were still the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean, the Caroline and Mariana Islands, the Philippines, and the islands of Palau on the continent. The economic positions of Spain in its colonies were undermined both from within - due to the backwardness of the Spanish economy, and from outside - by the increased penetration of capital from other powers. At the same time, the population of the colonies waged a stubborn national liberation struggle against Spanish oppression. The largest sizes freedom movement adopted in Cuba and the Philippines. The uprising in Cuba began as early as 1868. In 1878, the landowners and part of the Cuban bourgeoisie entered into an agreement with the Spanish colonizers, and the movement was suppressed. But in 1895 a new uprising broke out in Cuba, and in 1896 in the Philippines.
Cuba and Puerto Rico attracted the attention of the ruling circles of the United States not only as a valuable source of raw materials (sugarcane) and a profitable area for capital investment, but also as a strategic key on the approaches to Central America and the Caribbean, to the Isthmus of Panama, through which a breakthrough was planned channel. In the Pacific, US imperialism has set its sights on the Philippine Islands in order to cut its way to the markets of East Asia.
The reason for the Spanish-American war was the liberation uprising in Cuba. By launching hypocritical propaganda against the "Spanish cruelties," the American imperialists made particularly good use of the news that on February 15, 1898, an explosion occurred under mysterious circumstances on the American ship Maine, which was anchored off Havana. All attempts by the Spanish government to avoid armed conflict were in vain. The American government consistently led the way to war. At the same time, it counted on the fact that other imperialist states, including Britain and Germany, would not be able to interfere with it in view of the deep contradictions between them. Moreover, England, busy at that time with her own colonial expansion, especially in South Africa, was interested in rapprochement with the United States. The efforts of the German government to put together an anti-American diplomatic coalition of European powers failed. On April 20, 1898, the United States delivered an ultimatum to Spain in a deliberately harsh tone. The ultimatum demanded that Spain give up Cuba. Despite the fact that Spain was ready to make concessions, the American imperialist circles unleashed a war. Hostilities began on April 21, 1898. On this day, the American fleet blockaded Cuba. Cuban rebels at the same time were successfully fighting against the Spanish garrisons. After the American fleet, using its triple superiority, destroyed the Spanish squadron sent to the shores of Cuba, American troops began active operations. However, the main burden of the struggle fell on the shoulders of the Cuban rebels. However, when the Spanish authorities capitulated, the Americans removed the Cuban representatives from the negotiations. Throwing off the mask of fighters for the liberation of the Cuban people, the United States occupied Cuba.
Events of the same nature developed in the Philippines. Long before the start of the war, the American naval command instructed the Pacific Squadron to be ready to attack the Philippines. On May 1, the Spanish fleet, consisting of obsolete, poorly equipped and poorly armed wooden ships, was burned and sunk in Manila Bay.
By this time, the American military authorities had established contact with the leaders of the Philippine junta (Aguinaldo and others) who were in exile and brought them to the Philippines, hoping to use the national liberation movement of the Filipino people against the Spanish colonialists in their own interests. In a stubborn struggle, the Philippine people abolished the rule of Spain and formed an independent Philippine Republic. The participation of American troops in the expulsion of the Spanish garrisons was insignificant. But the American military authorities did not allow the Filipino rebels to occupy Manila. Having agreed with the Spanish command about its surrender, they launched a staged assault to demonstrate their supposedly decisive role in defeating the Spanish forces and thereby ensuring the future annexation of the Philippines.
On December 10, 1898, a Spanish-American peace treaty was concluded in Paris, according to which Cuba was declared "independent", but in fact fell under an American protectorate. The Philippine Islands, Puerto Rico, and the island of Guam, the largest of the Mariana Islands, went to the United States.
The Philippine people have risen to fight for their independence. The colonial war of American imperialism against the Philippine Republic was long and brutal. American troops burned settlements, devastated entire areas and mercilessly cracked down on residents.
The German imperialists also took part in the division of the Spanish colonies. In February 1899, Germany forced Spain to sell the Caroline, Mariana Islands (with the exception of Guam) and Palau to her. In the same year, the United States of America and Germany divided the Samoa archipelago, and the island of Tituila and some other smaller ones went to the United States. Together with the previously captured Hawaiian Islands, these new American possessions formed a system of strongholds in the Pacific Ocean - on the outskirts of Japan and Korea, China and Southeast Asia.
Boer War
At the end of the 1990s, the ruling circles of England were busy preparing warriors in South Africa. The big British capitalist companies, interested in the gold and diamond mines of the Transvaal and the Orange Republic, did not abandon their plans to seize the Boer states. The British government was forced, however, at first to reckon with the possible opposition of Germany, whose economic and political influence in the Boer republics was quite significant. In an effort to eliminate or weaken the influence of their German rival in South Africa, the British imperialists decided to support his expansionist policy in the Middle East (in particular, the project of building the Baghdad railway).
In March 1899, Cecil Rode came to Berlin, where, in negotiations with the German government, he revealed Britain's intention to seize the Boer republics and build the Cape Town-Cairo trans-African railway. "On the other hand," he declared, "Germany can operate without prejudice in Asia Minor." So intertwined plans for the redistribution of spheres of influence in South Africa and Asia Minor. Following this, in the spring and summer of 1899, J. Chamberlain and the governor of the Cape Colony, Milner, began to provoke the Transvaal, openly interfering in its internal affairs and putting forward more and more political demands, in the expectation that they would be rejected by the Boers. For his part, Transvaal President Kruger, realizing the inevitability of war, but wanting to gain the time needed to purchase weapons in European countries, entered into negotiations with England. In the autumn of 1899, the British government concentrated troops near the borders of the Boer republics. In order to forestall the impending invasion, the Boers declared war on England in October 1899 and began hostilities. Developing an energetic offensive, they defeated large detachments of the British and captured part of the Cape Colony.
Bourgeois public opinion in England was shocked by what had happened. The imperialist press created an atmosphere of "national tragedy". Lord Roberts was appointed commander of the South African troops, and Kitchener, who had come forward during the conquest of Sudan, was appointed his chief of staff.
The Boers, who defended their independence, showed great stamina and courage. However, the resources of the British Empire and the two small Boer republics were too unequal. Despite the first victories, the 60,000th Boer army could not resist the 450,000th enemy army. In addition, continuing the policy of oppression and exploitation of the indigenous population of the country, the Boers withdrew significant forces from the front and sent them to the rear to suppress the uprising of the local tribes that had begun.
In February 1900, the planned offensive of the British began. In June, British troops captured the capital of the Transvaal - Pretoria. Roberts proclaimed the annexation of the Transvaal and the Orange Republic to the British Empire. President Kruger was forced to emigrate to Europe.
Nevertheless, the Boers continued to resist; guerrilla war began.
Mobile units of the Boers under the command of Louis Botha, Smuts and De Beth interrupted English communications, attacked the British troops, captured strongholds, and made daring raids even in the immediate vicinity of the capital. The protection of railways, concentration and supply bases required a huge number of troops, which were dispersed over a large area. The invaders suffered losses in endless skirmishes.
In the struggle against the Boers, the British command acted mercilessly. strong points guerrilla war- farms - were destroyed, the population was driven into camps behind barbed wire, where people, especially children, died by the thousands from hunger and disease.
Blockhouses were installed along the railroads at a distance of a shot, and anyone approaching the canvas was shot. Using colossal numerical superiority, Kitchener methodically pushed the Boer detachments into barbed wire pens and forced them to surrender.
The peace treaty was signed on May 31, 1902. The Boers became British subjects. The British financial oligarchy achieved the accession to the empire of a new source of the largest profits. In 1910, the former republics of Transvaal and Orange became part of the new British dominion - the Union of South Africa. The British colonialists managed to achieve rapprochement with the top of the Boers thanks to a jointly pursued policy of oppression of the indigenous African population and immigrants - the Chinese and Indians.
Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
An important hotbed of imperialist contradictions at the beginning of the 20th century. came the Far East. Already in the last years of the 19th century, after the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895, the struggle of the powers for influence in China, as well as in Korea, intensified.
Immediately after the end of the Sino-Japanese war, the ruling circles of Japan began to prepare for a new war, this time against Russia, hoping to oust it from Manchuria (Northeast China) and Korea and at the same time capture Russian territories in Far East especially Sakhalin.
On the other hand, among the ruling circles tsarist Russia the desire for expansion in northern China and Korea intensified. For this purpose, with the participation of French capital, the Russian-Chinese Bank was created in 1895, in whose management the tsarist Ministry of Finance played a decisive role.
At the same time, it was decided to start building a section of the Siberian railway that would pass through Chinese territory. The initiator of this project, Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte, believed that Russia's concession to build this road would open up broad opportunities for economic penetration and strengthening of Russia's political influence throughout North China. After lengthy negotiations, the tsarist government obtained China's consent to granting a concession. At the insistence of the Chinese side, the concession was formally transferred not to the Russian government, but to the Russian-Chinese Bank, which, in order to implement it, created the "Society of the Chinese Eastern Railway." The signing of the concession agreement (September 8, 1896) opened a new stage in the Far Eastern policy of tsarism and in the development of contradictions between Russia and Japan, which also sought to seize the Northeastern provinces of China.
The situation was complicated by the fact that by this time the Russo-Japanese rivalry had intensified in Korea as well. Under an agreement signed in Seoul on May 14, 1896, Japan and Russia received the right to maintain their troops in Korea, and an agreement signed in Moscow on June 9 of the same year recognized mutually equal rights for both powers in this country. Having founded the Russian-Korean Bank and sent military instructors and a financial adviser to Seoul, the tsarist government at first actually acquired more political influence in Korea than Japan. But soon Japan, relying on the support of England, began to oust Russia. The tsarist government was forced to recognize Japan's predominant economic interests in Korea, close the Russo-Korean Bank, and recall its financial adviser to the Korean king. “We have clearly given Korea under the dominating influence of Japan,” Witte assessed the situation in this way.
After Germany captured Jiaozhou and the struggle for the partition of China intensified between the main capitalist powers, the tsarist government occupied Lushun (Port Arthur) and Dalian (Far), and in March 1898 achieved an agreement with China on the lease of the Liaodong Peninsula, the occupation of the rented territory by Russian troops and the granting of a concession for the construction of a branch line from the Chinese Eastern Railway to Port Arthur and Dalny. In turn, the ruling circles of Japan accelerated preparations for a new, wider expansion, hoping to complete this preparation before Russia completed the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway. “The war became inevitable,” General Kuropatkin later wrote, “but we did not realize this and did not properly prepare for it.”
The Yihetuan popular uprising and the imperialist intervention in China further exacerbated the contradictions between the powers, in particular between Russia and Japan. The European powers, as well as the United States of America, played a significant role in the growth of the Russo-Japanese conflict. In preparation for the war with Russia, the Japanese government sought allies and sought to isolate Russia on the international stage. England, Russia's longtime rival not only in China, but also in the Near and Middle East, has become such an ally.
In January 1902, an agreement was signed on the Anglo-Japanese alliance, directed primarily against Russia. Thanks to the alliance with England, Japan could begin to implement its aggressive plans in the Far East, being sure that neither France nor Germany would interfere in its conflict with Russia. On the other hand, with the help of Japan, England would be able to deal a serious blow to Russia and, in addition, to increase its influence in Europe to a certain extent in the fight against a new rival, Germany.
The ruling circles of the United States of America also hoped, with the help of Japan, to weaken the influence of Russia in the Far East and to strengthen their own influence in China (in particular, in Manchuria) and Korea. To this end, the American imperialists were ready to provide Japan with far-reaching support. In turn, Germany, seeking to undermine or weaken the alliance between France and Russia, as well as free its hands in Europe and create more favorable conditions for its penetration into the Middle East, secretly encouraged both Russia and Japan to war against each other. Thus, the planned war against Russia corresponded to the interests not only of Japanese, but also of British, American and German imperialism.
The tsarist government, convinced that the international situation was developing unfavorably for Russia, decided to sign an agreement with China (April 8, 1902), according to which the Chinese government was able to restore its power in Manchuria, “as it was before the occupation of the designated area by Russian troops ". The tsarist government even undertook to withdraw its troops from there within a year and a half. However, under the influence of court and military circles, the most typical representative of which was the clever businessman Bezobrazov, an aggressive, adventurist course prevailed in the Far Eastern policy of tsarism. The Bezobrazovskaya clique sought concessions in Korea and insisted that the tsarist government keep Manchuria in its hands at all costs. A part of the ruling circles also advocated a war with Japan, which saw in this war a means of preventing the revolution that was brewing in Russia.
Another group, led by Witte, was also in favor of expansion in the Far East, but believed that in this moment it is necessary to act mainly by economic methods. Knowing that Russia was not prepared for war, Witte wanted to delay it. In the end, in the policy of tsarism, the policy of military adventure won. Exposing the Far Eastern policy of Russian tsarism, Lenin wrote: “Who benefits from this policy? It is to the advantage of a handful of big-time capitalists who do business with China, a handful of manufacturers producing goods for the Asian market, a handful of contractors now making big money on urgent military orders... Such a policy is advantageous to a handful of nobles occupying high places in the civil and military service. They need a policy of adventure, because in it you can curry favor, make a career, glorify yourself with “exploits”. Our government does not hesitate to sacrifice the interests of the entire people to the interests of this handful of capitalists and bureaucratic scoundrels. V. I. Lenin, The Chinese War, Works, vol. 4, pp. 349-350.).
The ruling circles of Japan were well informed about Russia's unpreparedness for a war in the Far East. Covering their real, aggressive goals with all sorts of diplomatic subterfuges in negotiations with Russia, the Japanese militarists were leading the way to war.
On the night of February 9, 1904, the Japanese squadron under the command of Admiral Togo treacherously, without declaring war, attacked the Russian fleet stationed in Port Arthur. Only on February 10, 1904, Japan formally declared war on Russia. Thus began the Russo-Japanese War, which was of an imperialist nature both on the part of Japan and on the part of Tsarist Russia.
Having launched active operations at sea and weakened the Russian naval forces with unexpected strikes, the Japanese command secured favorable conditions for the transfer and deployment of the main ground forces on the Asian mainland. Simultaneously with the attack on Port Arthur, the Japanese command launched landing operations in Korea. The Russian cruiser "Varyag" and the gunboat "Koreets", which were in the Korean port of Chemulpo, after a heroic unequal struggle, were flooded by Russian sailors. On April 13, 1904, near Port Arthur, the Russian battleship Petropavlovsk was blown up by a mine and sank, on which the newly appointed commander was Pacific Fleet, the outstanding naval commander Vice Admiral S. O. Makarov (his friend, the wonderful artist V. V. Vereshchagin, died with him). At the end of April, having concentrated large forces in the north of Korea, the Japanese army defeated the Russian troops on the Yalu River and invaded Manchuria. At the same time, large Japanese forces (two armies) landed on the Liaodong Peninsula - north of Port Arthur and put the fortress under siege.
The sudden attack by Japan forced Russia to start a war in conditions when the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway and large facilities in Port Arthur had not yet been completed. Russia's military and economic backwardness affected the course and results of the war.
In early September 1904, the tsarist army suffered a major setback near Liao-yang. Both sides suffered significant losses. The besieged Port Arthur defended itself for a long time and stubbornly. However, on January 2, 1905, the commander of the fortress, General Stessel, surrendered Port Arthur to the Japanese.
The fall of Port Arthur received a wide international response. In progressive circles throughout the world, it was regarded as a heavy defeat for Russian tsarism. V. I. Lenin wrote about the fall of Port Arthur: “Not the Russian people, but the autocracy came to a shameful defeat. The Russian people benefited from the defeat of the autocracy. The capitulation of Port Arthur is the prologue to the capitulation of tsarism" ( V. I. Lenin, The Fall of Port Arthur, Works, vol. 8, p. 37.).
In March 1905, the last major land battle took place near Mukden (Shenyang). The main forces were sent into battle. The Japanese command sought to carry out its plan to envelop the Russian army from the flanks. This plan failed. However, the commander of the Russian army, General Kuropatkin, ordered the troops to retreat. The retreat was carried out in an atmosphere of disorganization and panic. The battle of Mukden was a major setback for the tsarist army. On May 27-28, 1905, a new military catastrophe, difficult for tsarist Russia, occurred: a Russian squadron under the command of Rozhdestvensky, which arrived in the Far East from the Baltic Sea, was destroyed in the Tsushima Strait.
Despite military successes, Japan was under extreme tension; its financial and human reserves were running low. Under these conditions, as the Japanese imperialists understood, prolonging the war became extremely undesirable and even dangerous. By the summer of 1905, the international situation had also changed. The ruling circles of Britain and the United States, who had themselves fomented the war between Japan and Russia, now wanted to put an end to it as soon as possible. England intended to concentrate her forces against the German rival. In addition, in view of the upsurge of the national movement in India, she sought to introduce new conditions into the alliance treaty with Japan, providing for Japan's participation in the protection of the British colonies in East Asia. The United States of America hoped that the mutual weakening of Russia and Japan would create greater opportunities for American expansion in the Far East. In negotiations with the Japanese government, they declared themselves an unofficial member of the Anglo-Japanese alliance and expressed their readiness to recognize the capture of Korea by Japan on the condition that Japan guarantees the United States the inviolability of the Philippines they captured. In March 1905, the American government put forward a proposal to buy the railways in Manchuria and put them under "international control", in which leading role American monopolies would play. Later, powerful groups of American finance capital, which financed Japan during the war, laid claim to the right to operate the South Manchurian Railway.
On June 8, 1905, United States President Theodore Roosevelt proposed peace negotiations between Russia and Japan. The tsarist government willingly took advantage of Roosevelt's proposal, as it needed peace in order to intensify the struggle against the unfolding revolution.
Russian-Japanese peace negotiations began in Portsmouth (USA) in August 1905. With the support of the United States and England, the Japanese delegation made huge demands at Portsmouth. In particular, Japan expected to receive military indemnity from Russia and part of Russian territory - Sakhalin Island. The negotiators focused on these two main Japanese demands. As regards Manchuria and Korea, tsarism from the very beginning agreed to recognize the dominant position of Japan in the southern part of Manchuria and actually renounced all claims to Korea. Faced with opposition from the Russian Plenipotentiary Witte on the question of Sakhalin and indemnities, the Japanese Plenipotentiary Komura threatened to break off the negotiations. T. Roosevelt, acting as a "mediator", began to put pressure on Russia, trying to get concessions from her in favor of Japan. The governments of Germany and France acted behind the scenes in the same direction. When the tsarist government rejected Japanese demands for territorial concessions and indemnities, the Japanese government invited Komura to sign a peace treaty. However, not knowing this, the king at the last moment agreed to cede southern half Sakhalin Island and pay the cost of keeping Russian prisoners of war in Japan.
On September 5, 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed. He handed over to Japan a part of Chinese territory - the so-called Kwantung leased area with Port Arthur and the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway. Japan received half of Sakhalin Island (south of the 50th parallel), as well as the right to fish in Russian territorial waters. A Japanese protectorate was actually established over Korea.
The defeat of tsarist Russia in the war with Japan had a serious impact on the alignment of forces of the imperialist powers not only in the Far East, but also in Europe. At the same time, it accelerated the development of revolutionary events in Russia.
In the last third of the 19th and early 20th centuries, military conflicts escalated. The reason is the struggle for the most profitable foreign markets: the colonies. By this time, the scale of production had increased. The industry has become crowded within the framework of one state. External markets are needed. International competition has intensified, which also had negative aspects. To reduce the negative to a minimum, they found a form of foreign markets where entrepreneurs from other countries did not go. This form of steel colonies, countries that were deprived of independence in resolving issues of domestic and foreign policy. The colonies became markets for cheap raw materials, cheap labor and a market for goods from the metropolis ( metropolis is a country that had colonies).
Economic crises (1873, 1883, 1890, 1900, 1907 and 1913) intensified the struggle for colonies. Consider some of the events of this struggle.
In 1881 France took over Tunisia. Then Algeria became its victim, and then a significant part of North and West Africa. In 1882 Britain occupied Egypt. In 1899-1902. she fought against the Boers (settlers from Holland) in southern Africa and won.
In 1898-1899. because of dominance in Cuba and the Philippines, there was a Spanish-American war. The Spaniards lost. The Philippines and Cuba gained independence from Spain, but became dependent on the United States
In the Far East, Japan, the most developed state in Asia, tried to assert its dominance. She established a protectorate over Korea. Started a war with China. But Russia intervened, and then Great Britain, the USA and Germany. China was divided into spheres of influence of these countries.
By 1913 European countries captured almost all of Africa (except Liberia and Ethiopia) and most of the countries of Asia. Of the countries of Asia, Turkey remained independent, Saudi Arabia, Iran, China, Siam. But they also turned out to be economically dependent on the leading countries of the world. In 1913 the metropolitan areas were Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, Belgium and Holland. Great Britain had the most colonies, its largest colonies: India, Canada, Australia, South Africa. Small Belgium had a large colony in Africa (Congo). The Netherlands took over Indonesia.
In 1913, Germany ranked second in the world in terms of economic development. She considered herself deprived in the division of the colonies. Italy and Austria-Hungary supported her in her claims. In 1882 they created Triple Military Alliance, the purpose of which was the struggle for the redistribution of the colonies. This alliance was directed against Great Britain, France and Russia. These countries had bilateral claims to each other. The last third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century were spent on overcoming mutual claims. In 1904 Great Britain and France reached an agreement and created the Entente Cordial (Cordial Accord) military alliance. Even earlier, France and Russia agreed. And then, with the mediation of France, Great Britain and Russia overcame their contradictions. In 1907 Russia joined the Entente. In 1913 there were more than 30 states in the Entente, all of them had close ties with the founders of the union. Since the beginning of the twentieth century. and until 1914 there was a constant aggravation of contradictions between the two military-political alliances. It led to the first world war.
