Presentation on world history on the topic "India after the Second World War." India after the Second World War Formation of an anti-colonial front

Report on the history of world civilizations

India after the war

Formation of an anti-colonial front

During the war, the colonial authorities promised to give India self-government. However, the hopes of the people of India for a change in status were not realized. England had a stranglehold on its main colony, and this was not surprising given the general weakening of forces in post-war period– England needed the resources it “pumped out” from the colonies more than ever. One way or another, this caused new stage anti-colonial struggle.

The development of the capitalist system strengthened the position of the national bourgeoisie. Industry and the ranks of the working class grew. However, for India the number of the latter was small. But at the same time, half of the workers were employed in large enterprises with more than 1 thousand workers. Such concentration in large enterprises and in several centers (Bombay, Madras, etc.) turned the small proletariat into an important organized force.

However, it was not the working class, but the multi-million-strong peasantry that determined the character of Indian society. The Indian village formed the basis of the socio-economic structure. This is not just a community, but a special social organization. The entire life of the village is permeated by the caste system, the tribal and class principle of dividing the community, and Brahmanism as a unifying religious factor. Thus, the Indian village is a self-sufficient organization.

The Indian peasantry constituted the main mass force of the national liberation movement in India during the interwar period. It was possible to involve such a village in the broad stream of anti-colonial struggle only by taking into account the socio-psychological characteristics of the Indian peasantry and the urban worker - yesterday's peasant. Outstanding role in organizing mass non-violent resistance campaigns in the 20-40s. belonged to Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948). During the interwar period, Gandhi became the ideological leader of the Indian National Congress. Thanks to Gandhi, as well as the fact that the national bourgeoisie put forward the idea of ​​complete national independence, a nationwide anti-colonial front was formed in India.

Mahatma Gandhi and Gandhism

Gandhi's teachings are rooted in the deep past of India, in the powerful layers of the unique Indian culture. Gandhiism combined political, moral, ethical and philosophical concepts. Gandhi was also familiar with the principle of non-violence of L. N. and Tolstoy. Gandhi's social ideal is also deeply national. This is a peasant utopia for the establishment of a “welfare society” ( sarvodaya), the kingdom of God on earth, a society of justice, which is colorfully described in the sacred books of Hinduism. At the same time, this side of Gandhi’s teachings contained a protest against the capitalist way of life, his denial of the progressiveness and necessity for India of the capitalist path along which European civilization took.

Gandhism resonated with large sections of the peasantry and urban lower classes because it combined a social ideal with the belief that the struggle for independence against British rule was a vital cause because it was a struggle for justice. Gandhi drew from cultural, historical and religious traditions appeals and images close to the peasant and artisan. Therefore, the demands for the independence of the country and the transformation of society, dressed in traditional images, became clear to many tens of millions ordinary people. This is the secret of the enormous popularity of Gandhi’s personality and his ideas. The stamp of India's deepest traditions and understanding of the psychology of the peasantry marked the tactical method of Gandhism in the national liberation struggle, the method of non-violent resistance (boycott, peaceful marches, non-cooperation, etc.). This method combined patience and protest, conservatism and spontaneous revolutionism in a very unique way. This was typical for the Indian peasant, brought up for centuries in a fatalistic, religious worldview. Gandhi combined active protest with tolerance towards the enemy. It is in this combination that Gandhi’s nonviolence appears as the only possible form resistance to colonial oppression. Gandhi rejected the class struggle as a destabilizing factor dividing the nation in the face of common task- liberation from foreign oppression. Thus, Gandhism was a deeply national and peasant ideology in nature. Gandhism also met the interests of the national bourgeoisie, which adopted this ideology. The national bourgeoisie, together with the people, sought to eliminate British colonial rule and establish its own power peacefully, supported by a mass movement. Gandhism united the peasantry, artisans, and national bourgeoisie and forced the colonialists to leave India without a bloody armed struggle.

Gandhi's critics argued that he was prone to compromise, but he knew better than anyone when exactly a mass nonviolent movement needed to be suspended, lest it turn into its opposite, that is, a bloodbath. Extremists also reproached him for not pursuing all the revolutionary possibilities of mass nonviolent resistance. What would have happened if Gandhi had carried them through to the end?

Once in Indian history this process got out of control, triggered by the British policy of “divide and rule” in 1947, when India was divided into two states along religious lines. Then conflicts between Muslims and Hindus escalated into religious war, which claimed millions of lives both Muslims and Hindus. Gandhi himself became a victim of civil strife. He was killed by a religious fanatic shortly after Indian independence in January 1948.

The first campaign of nonviolent non-cooperation was organized by Gandhi in 1919-1922. The post-war rise of the national liberation movement in India began with major strikes in Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Ahmedabad. The strikes were spontaneous, but they were a general symptom of changes in the mood of the Indian people. The colonial authorities took the path of maneuvers. India Secretary Montagu proposed reform of India's electoral system to ease tensions. It was proposed to increase the number of voters in elections to the central and provincial legislative assemblies, as well as to provide Indians with additional seats in the councils of the Viceroy and provincial governors. At the same time, a repressive law was passed defining penalties for anti-government actions (Rowlett's Law). Thus, the British tried to contain the rising tide of the liberation movement with a “carrot and stick” policy.

The Defiance Campaign began as a protest against the Rowlett Act. On April 6, 1919, Gandhi called for a hartal (closing of shops and cessation of all business activities). Colonial authorities responded with violence. On April 13, in Amritsar, Punjab province, the British colonialists shot at a peaceful rally. Over 1 thousand people were killed and about 2 thousand were wounded. This bloody massacre caused general outrage in Punjab and spread throughout the country. Gandhi urgently left for Punjab to prevent the indignation from developing into a spontaneous riot. He succeeded.

In the fall of 1919, it was here in Amritsar that the congress of the Indian National Congress took place, which decided to boycott the elections under the Montagu Act. The boycott completely disrupted the elections.

The experience of the 1919 performances led Gandhi to the conclusion that it was necessary to gradually develop the struggle for independence. Based on this experience, Gandhi developed the tactics of nonviolent non-cooperation, which provided for a gradual, two-stage development of the movement. In order to keep the struggle within the framework of non-violence and at the same time ensure its growth, it was envisaged at the first stage to carry out campaigns to boycott the colonial regime: refusal of honorary titles and positions, boycott of official receptions, boycott English schools and colleges, English courts, boycott of elections, boycott of foreign goods; at the second stage - evasion of state taxes.

The start of the disobedience campaign was scheduled for August 1, 1920. The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League jointly led the campaign. During these years, the INC turned into a mass political organization (10 million members). The movement had 150 thousand volunteer activists. Gandhism became the ideology of the INC.

On February 4, 1922, an incident occurred that threatened to escalate the movement into an uncontrollable phase: a crowd of peasants burned several policemen who had been driven into a building. Gandhi sharply condemned this act of lynching and announced an end to the campaign of civil non-cooperation. The movement began to wane.

The new rise of the anti-colonial movement in India came at a time of global economic crisis. This stage of non-violent non-cooperation (1928-1933) is characterized by a more organized movement, a clear formulation of the question of Indian independence and constitutional demands.

The second campaign of civil non-cooperation began in April 1930. It followed approximately the same pattern as in the early 1920s. The British authorities declared the campaign illegal. The leaders of the movement, including Gandhi, were arrested. 60 thousand participants of the movement ended up in prisons. In some places, protests began to develop into uprisings. The unrest also affected the army. The soldiers refused to shoot.

On March 5, 1931, an agreement was concluded between the leadership of the INC and the administration of the Viceroy, according to which the British side pledged to stop repression and release prisoners arrested for participating in the campaign of non-cooperation, and Congress announced the end of the campaign of civil disobedience. Gandhi agreed to participate in the conference " round table", convened in London to discuss Indian problems. Thus, the fight was brought to the negotiating table.

For the round table conference, the INC presented a document “On the Fundamental Rights and Responsibilities of Indian Citizens.” In fact, this was the basis of the constitution.

The document contained important points: the introduction of bourgeois-democratic freedoms in India, the recognition of caste and religious equality, the administrative and territorial reorganization of the country taking into account the religious factor, the establishment of a minimum wage, limiting land rent, and reducing taxes. The conference ended in failure.

In August 1935, the British Parliament adopted for India new program reforms. The reform envisaged expanding (up to 12% of the population) the participation of Indian citizens in elections by reducing property and other qualifications and giving local legislative bodies greater rights.

Campaigns of nonviolent resistance undermined the colonial regime. In 1937, elections to the central and provincial legislative assemblies were held under a new electoral system. The Indian National Congress won a majority of elected seats in 8 of India's 11 provinces and formed local governments there. This was a major step forward towards seizing power in the country and accumulating “parliamentary experience”.

With the outbreak of World War II in 1939 and Britain's declaration of war on Germany on September 3, 1939. The Viceroy of India declared India a belligerent.

In June 1947, a final agreement was reached that allowed the British Parliament to pass the Indian Independence Act, which came into force on August 15, 1947. This document set out the principles of partition, according to which a number of areas were given the opportunity to decide whether to join the Indian Union or Pakistan and declared the right of everyone of these dominions to self-government with the right to secede from the Commonwealth. The suzerainty of the English monarchy over the Indian principalities, as well as the validity of the treaties concluded with them, also ceased. The population of East Bengal and West Punjab chose Pakistan, and the residents of West Bengal and East Punjab spoke in favor of joining the Indian Union. Declaration of Independence India after independence

Immediately after independence, a government was formed in India headed by Prime Minister J. Nehru. The country witnessed unprecedented clashes between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. There was a massive migration of Muslims to Pakistan and Hindus to India. Added to the communal hostility and clashes were the economic and political hardships caused by partition. Iron and car roads and irrigation canal systems were cut off by state borders, industrial enterprises were cut off from sources of raw materials, civil services, police and army, necessary to ensure normal governance of the country and the safety of citizens, were separated. On January 30, 1948, when the disturbances in public order began to decline, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic. Consequences of Jawaharlal Nehru's partition

The rulers of 555 princely states had to decide whether to join India or Pakistan. The peaceful integration of the vast majority of small principalities did not cause complications. But the Muslims, who stood at the head of the richest and most populous principality of Hyderabad, where Hindus numerically predominated, declared their desire to rule an independent sovereign country. In September 1948, Indian troops were brought into Hyderabad, and under pressure from the central Indian government, the Nizam signed an agreement to join the Indian Union. Consequences of the partition of the Principality of Hyderabad

A serious situation also arose in the north, where the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, a territory with a predominantly Muslim population, was a Hindu maharaja. Pakistan put economic pressure on the princely state to achieve its annexation. In October 1947, about 5,000 armed Muslims entered Kashmir. The Maharaja, who was in dire need of help, signed a document on the inclusion of the principality in India. India accused the Pakistani side of aggression and referred the issue of Kashmir for discussion to the UN Security Council. The UN decided to recognize the actual ceasefire line as of January 1, 1949 as a demarcation line. On November 17, 1956, the Constituent Assembly of Kashmir adopted the Constitution, according to which the state of Jammu and Kashmir was declared an integral part of India. Consequences of partition Disputed territory Kashmir

Relations with Pakistan have become a major issue in Indian foreign policy. The protracted dispute over Kashmir has prevented India from taking a leadership role in the Non-Aligned Movement. When Indian Prime Minister John Nehru refused to cooperate with the United States in the fight against Soviet expansion, the Americans entered into a military alliance with Pakistan. This forced the Indian leadership to expand contacts with China and the USSR. Indian-Soviet ties noticeably strengthened after the conclusion of a major trade agreement in 1953 and the exchange of visits by the leaders of the two states. The USSR welcomed India's policy of non-alignment, which coincided with its strategic line of limiting US influence in the Afro-Asian region. Consequences of the 1954 partition. Meeting of J. Nehru. On the left is I.M. Kharchenko.

On January 26, 1950, India was declared a republic. The constitution of 1950 reflected the cautious position of the leadership and enshrined achievements achieved during independent development countries. The relatively simple procedure for amending the constitution based on decisions of the majority in parliament expanded the possibilities for further implementation of reforms. Under J. Nehru, who was also the head of the Planning Commission, three five-year plans were implemented. Industrial policy focused on creating a mixed economy and opened up prospects for cooperation with private capital, although only state ownership was allowed in leading industries. This rule affected enterprises in the defense industry, ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering, mining, etc. Development and reforms Flag of India Emblem of India

The policy of stimulating industrial development was combined with a policy of cautious reforms in the agricultural sector. The Planning Commission strongly recommended that the states legislatively guarantee the protection of the rights of land users, in particular, limit rental rates, set a “ceiling” on the area of ​​​​individual land holdings and reorganize the credit and marketing system on a cooperative basis, and, in the more distant future, possibly agricultural production. Since 1953, the implementation of a community development program began, which set, in particular, the task of organizing a network of institutions to disseminate advanced agricultural experience in the village, as well as the creation of cooperative associations and panchayats in the village. Development and reforms Peasants

The government delayed reaching a compromise on the issue of reorganizing the territorial-administrative division on a linguistic basis, and when in 1956 14 states were formed on the basis of the dominant languages, discontent of other ethnic communities manifested itself. In 1960, serious unrest in the state of Bombay forced the central authorities to meet demands for its division into two new states - Gujarat and Maharashtra. The Sikhs succeeded when in 1965 Punjab was divided into the state of Punjab, in which Sikhs formed the majority, and the state of Haryana, with a predominantly Hindu population. The ethnic problem arose even more sharply in the northeastern border strip, where some local tribes demanded independence and raised armed uprisings for this purpose. Borders of the moderate course New administrative-territorial divisions

The compromise with the leading castes seriously limited the government's ability to bring about social change in the village. The laws on agrarian reform that were approved in the states contained significant gaps that made it possible, on the one hand, to force tenants off the land, and on the other, to circumvent the provision on the upper limit of the area of ​​​​land holdings. The slow rollout of reforms has led to chronic shortages of agricultural products, rising food prices and cuts in government subsidies. In the early 1960s, the financial crisis deepened. Economic stagnation, in turn, limited the INC's ability to maneuver. The limits of a moderate course The classical model of caste hierarchy

Nehru's authority in October 1962 was significantly undermined after the invasion of Chinese troops into the territory of the North-East Frontier Agency and into the Ladakh mountains in Kashmir. In an effort to secure ties between the Xinjiang Uyghur and Tibet Autonomous Regions, China has tried to force India to give up rights to the strategically important Aksai Chin Plain in eastern Ladakh in Kashmir. The armed forces of the People's Republic of China launched several attacks on the Indian army and occupied an area of ​​37,5 thousand square meters. km. By the time China announced the withdrawal of troops from all occupied areas except Aksai Chin, Nehru was forced to turn to the United States for military assistance. Borders of Ladakh temperate course on map of India

Sastri, who succeeded Nehru as Prime Minister, was nominated for this post by a group of party leaders called the "syndicate", which was supported by large landowners and entrepreneurs. In 1965, World Bank experts conditioned the provision of financial assistance on the implementation of a set of economic reforms. During his one and a half year tenure as Prime Minister, Shastri made decisions to reorient the main flow of government investment from heavy industry to agriculture; emphasis on intensive farming and land reclamation; stimulation through a price system and the provision of subsidies to village farms capable of modernizing production; increasing the role of private and foreign investment in industry. The economy became especially dependent on foreign financial receipts when the country was burdened with additional military expenditures during the second war with Pakistan in 1965. Nehru's successors Lal Bahadur Shastri

The losses suffered by the INC in the parliamentary elections in 1967 did not deprive it of a narrow victory at the national level, but led to defeat in 8 states. In the states of Kerala and West Bengal, the INC was removed from power by a coalition led by the Communist Party of India. In both states, left-wing governments restricted the activities of the police, and there there were protests by tenants and the agricultural proletariat against landowners and factory workers - against the management of enterprises. Revolutionary-minded communists supported armed peasant revolts in several states where the CPI operated. In the late 1960s, they organized protests by small peoples in Andhra Pradesh and members of the scheduled tribes and castes in West Bengal, which were suppressed by the army. Nehru's successors Parliament House in India

The country's next prime minister, Indira Gandhi, could no longer rely on the old party leaders and teamed up with a small youth group of socialists and former communists. The prime minister's decisive actions to nationalize the largest commercial banks associated her name with a new policy aimed at helping the poor. The prime minister's popularity reached its zenith in 1971 as a result of victory in the third Indo-Pakistani war. With the emergence of Bangladesh, India found itself in a dominant position in the South Asian region. Moreover, in May 1974 it conducted nuclear tests, demonstrating the country's increased military power. Indira Gandhi

In 1971, the government restored the right of parliament to amend the Constitution, abolished in 1967 by a ruling of the Supreme Court. The adopted 26th Amendment stated that any law must comply with the fundamental articles of the Constitution, based on the principles of social and economic justice. When the amendment was rejected by the Supreme Court in April 1973, the government removed the three oldest judges who voted against it and appointed one of its members, who spoke in favor of the amendment, as chairman of the court. The leaders of all opposition forces, except the CPI, saw in this act a threat to the establishment of an authoritarian regime. The leader of the opposition was J. Narayan, the oldest follower of Mahatma Gandhi. Narayan launched an agitation campaign in Gujarat, which led in January 1974 to the resignation of ministers and the dissolution of the state legislature. An equally vigorous campaign was carried out in Bihar. Political crisis Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhi's charge of "corrupt practices" on June 2, 1975 gave her opponents the opportunity to organize a movement to remove the Prime Minister. In response, Gandhi declared a state of emergency in India, which resulted in mass arrests of political opponents and widespread censorship. In the parliamentary elections in March 1977, the new Janata Party, which was a bloc of opposition groups, won a landslide victory and repealed the emergency law. However, the Janata government soon became a victim of internal intrigue. Its head, M. Desai, resigned in June 1979, and in the parliamentary elections held in January 1980, Gandhi again came to power. Political crisis of Morarji Desai

Electoral participation in the 1980 elections dropped to approximately 55% with an increase in conflicts during the election campaign. In West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, the CPI won. The central government was faced with a resurgence of separatist movements in the northeast and a series of communal riots in Uttar Pradesh. In all cases, military force had to be used to restore order. In June 1984, following an outbreak of Sikh terrorism in Punjab, army troops stormed the Sikh sanctuary, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, leading to the death of Sikh leader Bhindranwale and hundreds of his followers who had taken refuge in the temple. Gandhi's decisive action was greeted with approval in other parts of India, but it turned the Sikhs against the prime minister. On October 31, 1984, I. Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh guards. She was replaced as head of government and as leader of the INC by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who scheduled parliamentary elections for the end of 1984 and won a landslide victory. Political crisis Rajiv Gandhi

In the 1989 elections, anti-INC(I) parties united around former finance minister V.P. Singh, who then headed a minority government. Singh's government relied on the Janata Dal party, created in 1988, and was supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and two communist parties. The coalition collapsed in November 1990 when the BJP left it. The next government of Chandra Sekhar resigned four months later because the INC(I) did not approve the state budget proposal. Political crisis BDP coat of arms

Rajiv Gandhi was killed by a bomb thrown by a Sri Lankan Tamil terrorist in May 1991. It was an act of revenge for the entry of Indian troops into northern Sri Lanka in 1987 to counter Tamil separatists. The new Prime Minister Narasimha Rao led decisive economic reforms, designed to modernize the country's production, scientific and technical base. Less successful was the Rao government's efforts to prevent communal violence following the destruction of a mosque in Uttar Pradesh by orthodox Hindus in December 1992. Narasimha Rao's political crisis

Elections in April-May 1996 led to the distribution of seats in parliament between three main factions: the INC (136 parliamentary seats), the BDP (160) and a left-wing coalition called the United Front (111 seats). After the BJP refused to join the majority government, the new Prime Minister HD Deve Gowda brought in the INC. The basis of the government was made up of representatives of regional and leftist parties. Political crisis Sonia Gandhi, leader of the INC

In April 1997, the INC refused to support the coalition led by Gowda, and the prime minister was forced to resign. His place was taken by Inder Kumar Gujral, appointed by the president and approved by parliament, who continued his predecessor’s course of economic liberalization and growth of economic indicators, but refused to further reduce spending in the social sector. India's foreign policy dialogue with Pakistan and China has intensified. The resignation of the Gujral government led to early parliamentary elections in March 1998. A coalition of 18 parties came to power, in which the BJP occupied a leading position. Political crisis Trilateral meeting of foreign ministers of China, India and Russia

The main task of the new Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee was to maintain the coalition government led by the BJP. In April 1999, a government crisis occurred and the government was forced to resign. The lower house of parliament was dissolved. New parliamentary elections took place in October 1999. Despite the active participation of the Indian National Congress in the election struggle, the National Democratic Alliance, led by the BJP, received a majority in parliament. Vajpayee became Prime Minister again. India's nuclear tests have complicated its relations with most countries of the world. In today's unstable situation, the factor of stability remains the figure of the president, who in 1997, for the first time in the history of the country, elected a representative of the former “untouchable” caste, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who previously served as vice president under S. D. Sharma, who belonged to the Brahmin caste. Political crisis Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Conclusion After independence, India faced many paths national development. A number of internal problems hampered the effective development of the state: strong social differentiation, the presence of castes and dogmas, the problem of national minorities, the struggle between Hindus and Muslims. But despite the difficulties and obstacles in development, India has managed to reform and strengthen the social, economic and other spheres of society. Now India is a modern, dynamically developing state, actively participating in solving international problems.

The end of the Second World War and the first post-war years constituted an entire historical era for Asia. The August Revolution in Vietnam won, the liberation of Indonesia began, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia became independent. Revolutionary China celebrated the success of many years of struggle.
The national liberation revolution in India occurred during the same period. No longer relying on the hypocritical promises of England, the Indian working class and the Indian peasantry demanded independence and achieved it through revolutionary means. In February 1946, an uprising of Indian sailors began (almost 20 ships raised red flags).
The British Labor government had to make a statement granting India political independence within the framework of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
A special mission sent to India from London proposed the following plan: India would be transformed into a union of autonomous provinces and principalities, and after that would receive the right to be considered a dominion; The provinces, in turn, are divided into Hindu and Muslim - based on religion.
This plan involved the dismemberment of the country: it was assumed that in this way it would be easier to keep it in its former dependence.
After various maneuvers aimed at dividing the two main political parties of national liberation - the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League - into different ends and at odds with each other, England managed to carry out a plan for the dismemberment of India. The Act of August 15, 1947 created two dominions: India and Pakistan.
Pakistan (111 million people) was made up of two parts, spaced 1.5 thousand kilometers from each other. The princely state of Kashmir was claimed by both India and Pakistan. Already in October 1947, Pakistani armed forces occupied part of Kashmir. At the request of the Maharaja of Kashmir, the princely state was included in India (1947).
The dismemberment of the country entailed innumerable disasters. Hundreds of thousands of people were forcibly relocated from one dominion to another. Economic ties that had been established for centuries were artificially severed. Religious strife became even more bitter.
When the Punjab province began to be divided into two parts, the struggle between Hindus (and Sikhs) on the one hand, and Muslims on the other, resulted in massacres. About 500 thousand people died and at least 12 million were left homeless. Pogroms and massacres swept across the vast country and, as for Punjab, have not stopped to this day.
The dismemberment was followed by the creation of the governments of India and Pakistan. The Government of India was formed by the Indian National Congress - a party of the national bourgeoisie, landowners, and intelligentsia. D. Nehru became the head of the government.
The state independence of India received its final confirmation in the act of January 26, 1950, by which India was declared a “sovereign and democratic republic”. On the same day, the Constitution of the Indian Republic was put into effect.
The Constitution proclaimed the federal structure of the new state: at the beginning the states differed in the form of government, but in 1956 a reform was carried out that introduced a new Administrative division. Currently, states have a uniform system of government.
The principalities of India (Hyderabad, Mysore, etc.) were to become part of the republic: the attempts of their feudal rulers to remain on the sidelines were thwarted by the popular masses.
The equality of citizens is recognized regardless of the caste and religion to which they belong.
The castes that we talked about when characterizing ancient India have not disappeared to this day. This division is especially noticeable in the village, where the custom holds stronger and longer.
The predominance of Brahmins (Brahmins) is undoubtedly in political life: they comprise the main cadres of senior government officials, leaders political parties and organizations.
At least 70 million people of the Indian population are “untouchables”: rickshaw pullers, sweepers, messengers, sanitation workers, etc. And although the laws are on their side, the old customs have not yet disappeared.
The Constitution contains special mention of providing the people with a means of subsistence as a management task, and of labor protection for workers and minors.
In this regard, the agrarian reform (the task of which should be the destruction of feudal land ownership and feudal remnants in general), as well as the policy of industrialization of the country, deserve mention.
The first agrarian reform began to be implemented in 1948, but it was of a limited nature, carried out by state governments, and amounted to some alienation (for a fee) of surplus lands of landowners. Redemption payments were very high (10-15 year annual annuity), and therefore only the kulaks benefited from the fruits of the reform.
In subsequent years, new measures were taken to redistribute land. However, even after that the situation changed little: 80Uo peasants owned the same amount of land (27%) as 2% of large landowners.
The industrialization of the country is carried out on the basis of state plans. Particular attention is paid to the creation of the state sector of the national economy. India has created some important industrial complexes.
In November 1949, the Indian Constitution came into force. The head of the Indian Republic is the President, elected for a 5-year term. He appoints the prime minister of the government (Council of Ministers). The latter is responsible to parliament. The parliament is bicameral. One of its chambers is elected by state electors, the other by popular vote. Suffrage is universal and is granted to citizens from the age of 21.
Bearing in mind the separatist aspirations of some states, and even more the inevitability of acute social clashes, the Indian Constitution provides for the power of the President to declare a state of emergency and take emergency measures to suppress anti-government actions.

IN India- the richest colony of Great Britain began the rise of the anti-colonial movement. To weaken it, in 1946 a decision was made on elections to the Central Legislative Assembly. The victory of the secular Indian National Congress (INC), which did not express the interests of certain religious groups, aroused the displeasure of Muslims, who refused to trust the Hindus and demanded their representation in power. The INC, which did not want to meet the demands of Muslims, emphasized its desire to become the only national party representing the interests of both Hindus and Muslims.

This is what prompted the Muslim League under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah to break with the INC and take the path of separatism, which led to the emergence of the state of Pakistan. In August 1947, an independence law was passed, which provided for the creation of two states. The former colony was divided along religious lines into India, in which the majority of the population professed Hinduism, and Pakistan, in which the Muslim population predominated. Independence Day was celebrated for the first time on August 14 in India and August 15, 1947 in Pakistan.

Indian massacre (1947)

But before the holidays ended, tragedy began. During August and September 1947, up to 500 thousand Muslims were killed who were leaving the Indian half of eastern Punjab (Pyatirechye). Militant Sikhs (representatives of a religious doctrine different from Islam and Hinduism) did not even spare women and children, stopped trains full of refugees, and killed everyone in cold blood. Killings of Hindus also took place in Pakistan, but on a much smaller scale. The Muslim League tried to survive the Sikhs and Hindus who found themselves in Pakistan. Millions of refugees crossed the border in both directions in search of salvation, driven mad by the horror of intercommunal war. 9-10 million Muslims fled from India; There were very few Hindus left in West Pakistan, but there were about 30 million in East Pakistan. Communal clashes and killings occurred later, but never reached the horrific proportions of 1947.

Assassination of M. Gandhi

The transfer of power in India from the British to the national government turned into a catastrophic massacre. Among the victims was the founder of the Indian National Congress, M. Gandhi, who was killed in January 1948 by a Hindu extremist. A certain share of the blame for this bloodshed lies with the previous colonial administration, which did not have a clear concept of a multi-national state, and the new authorities, which contributed to the tension through irresponsible statements or inaction.

India is coping with food difficulties; it is among the top ten countries in the world in terms of industrial production.

Unlike India, Pakistan declared an Islamic republic with strong presidential power. Pakistan's disagreement with the terms of territorial delimitation, which believed that a number of Muslim regions mistakenly became part of India, became the cause of repeated armed conflicts between the countries.

After the end of World War II, India experienced the rise of a national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to stay in India, maneuvered, combining methods of brutal suppression with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.

Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in 1946 by religious curiae, which exacerbated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and the equality of all its citizens and the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions:

The main demand of the Muslim League was the division of India into two states along religious lines and the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan, “the land of the pure.”

The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a considerable part of Muslims supported the Inc. program. The overwhelming majority of the population spoke out against English rule.

The INC included representatives of various social strata and was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.

In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was created. The Muslim League refused to join the government and declared the beginning of a direct struggle for Pakistan. Already in August, pogroms began in Calcutta in Hindu neighborhoods, and in response, the Muslim quarters of the city went up in flames. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, escalating into massacres, spread to other parts of the country.

In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India dominion rights subject to its division along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they would join. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.

A huge number of refugees moved from Pakistani units to Indian areas and vice versa. The death toll numbered in the hundreds of thousands. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded the creation of acceptable conditions for the Muslims remaining in India. This caused attacks and accusations of betraying the interests of Hindus. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was assassinated by a member of one of the religious organizations.

On August 14, 1947, the establishment of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. The leader of the Muslim League became the head of the government of Pakistan Liqiat Ali Khan. On August 15, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 600 princely states, the vast majority acceded to India. The first Indian government was headed by J. Nehru.

When dividing the territory, neither economic ties between regions, nor geographical boundaries, nor national composition were taken into account. 90% of all mineral reserves, textiles and sugar industries remain in Indian territory. Most of the areas for the production of bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.

A difficult situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population was Muslim. In the fall of 1947, Pakistani troops invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. But the western part of the principality was occupied by Pakistani troops. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main reasons for the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. The result of the 1971 war was the formation of the state of Bangladesh on the site of East Pakistan.

In 1949, India adopted a constitution declaring it a republic. Election victories until the end of the 70s. XX century INC won. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform was carried out, various social transformation. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. Evidence of this was the creation and testing by India at the turn of the 21st century. nuclear weapons.

In foreign policy India has set a course of non-participation in blocs and the struggle for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of Prime Minister passed to his daughter Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son became prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, killed in 1991. These murders are associated with the intensification of nationalist and separatist movements in the country

movements (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the twentieth century. INC lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of Hindu parties came to rule the country (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee). However, the main directions of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the generally successful development of the country, continue.