The order of inheritance of property
patrimony- land ownership owned by the feudal lord hereditarily (from the word "father") with the right to sell, pledge, donate. The estate was a complex consisting of landed property (land, buildings and inventory) and rights to dependent peasants.
Estate- a kind of land ownership, given for military or public service in Russia at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 18th centuries.
Since, starting from the reign of Ivan III, a patrimony could also be owned only if its owner serves the tsar, the question arises of how these forms of land tenure differed from each other.
1. The patrimony could be divided among the heirs and sold, but the estate could not.
2. The patrimony of the owner, who left no sons, remained in the family, while the estate returned to the royal treasury.
3. With mid-sixteenth V. the clan had the right to redeem for forty years the estate sold by its member to the side.
For these reasons, the votchina was considered a higher form of conditional landownership, and it was preferred to the estate. Prosperous servants usually had both.
With the Code of Service of 1556, which fixed the duty of service of the owners of both estates and estates, depending on the size of the allotment, a gradual process of convergence of the legal regime of these two types of ownership began. The main trend in the development of local law is the transition of the right of use to the right of ownership. It ends mainly with the Council Code of 1649 and the laws that followed it.
1. The right to inherit on estates is developing. This principle - not to take away the estates of the fathers from the sons - has been established since the time of Ivan the Terrible. And in 1618, the hereditary transfer of estates extends not only to descending ones, but also, in the absence of them, to lateral ones. The landlords have a powerful incentive to develop the economy, it can be improved, expanded, upset, without fear of losing (because everything is done, ultimately, in the name of children).
2. The right of inheritance is strengthened by the custom of allocating a living allowance to the widow and daughters of a serviceman (in case of his death in the war, death due to a wound, injury, etc.).
3. Another way to strengthen private rights to manorial lands is to rent the estate for use to another servant (a widow, an elderly retired nobleman himself), who was obliged to support the former owner until his death or to give all the maintenance in advance in cash (the latter was tantamount to a sale).
4. The exchange of estates for estates is allowed (with the consent of the government), and at the end of the 17th century. – and other transactions, including sale and donation. Since that time, the sale of estates for debts in the event of the debtor's insolvency was also allowed.
Thus, the differences between the estate and the patrimony were erased, finally eliminated by the decree of Peter I on the same inheritance in 1714.
Detailed solution paragraph §7 on history for students of grade 8, authors Arsentiev N.M., Danilov A.A., Kurukin I.V. 2016
Questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph
1. Explain the meaning of the concept of "small nobleman."
A small local nobleman - who owns a small estate, had no more than 100 souls of serfs.
2. What distinctions between patrimony and estate were abolished in 1714? Why do you think it was done?
Previously, the estate was inherited, it could be sold; and the nobles received the estate for service. By decree of single inheritance, this difference between the patrimony and the estate was eliminated. V. O. Klyuchevsky explains the reasons for the adoption of the decree as follows: “You know the legal difference between the main types of ancient Russian service land tenure, between a patrimony, hereditary property, and an estate, conditional, temporary, usually lifelong possession. But long before Peter, both of these types of landownership began to converge with each other: the features of the local property penetrated into the patrimonial property, and the local acquired the legal features of the patrimonial. In the very nature of the estate, as a landed property, were the conditions for its convergence with the patrimony.
Thus, life itself, socio-economic realities, prompted Peter to adopt this normative act: “So early XVIII century, the estate approached the patrimony to a distance imperceptible to us and was ready to disappear as a special type of service land tenure. This rapprochement was marked by three signs: estates became ancestral, like estates; they were divided in the order of apportionment between descending or lateral ones, as estates were divided in the order of inheritance; local layout was supplanted by patrimonial awards.
In my opinion, Peter achieved the following results: landownership was protected from endless fragmentation, and the nobility - from impoverishment. The ban on alienation did not allow the nobleman to lose at cards or in any other way "squander" the precious land. In addition, the right to inheritance, assigned to only one son, forced his brothers to serve regularly in public service- "to look for ranks."
3. What did the ability to "alienate" inherited estates mean in practice?
Alienation of property (property rights) - the transfer of things into the ownership of another person, as well as the transfer of ownership or any property right (including rights expressed in securities) by its owner to another person. This means that the ability to alienate inherited estates is the right to sell, donate, pledge, lease them.
4. What opportunities for career, property and class growth did military service give under Peter I?
From the “old” in the structure of the service class under Peter, the former enslavement of the service class through the personal service of each service person to the state remained unchanged. But in this enslavement, its form has changed somewhat. In the early years Swedish war the noble cavalry was still serving military service on the same basis, but had the value not of the main force, but only of the auxiliary corps. In 1706, sheremetev’s army continued to serve as stewards, solicitors, Moscow nobles, residents, etc. In 1712, due to fears of a war with the Turks, all these ranks were ordered to equip themselves for service under a new name - courtiers. From 1711-1712, the expressions gradually go out of circulation in documents and decrees: boyar children, service people and are replaced by the expression gentry borrowed from Poland, which, in turn, was taken by the Poles from the Germans and redone from the word "Geschlecht" - genus. In Peter's decree of 1712, the entire service class is called the nobility. The foreign word was chosen not only because of Peter's predilection for foreign words, but because in Moscow time the expression "nobleman" meant a relatively very low rank, and people of senior service, court and duma ranks did not call themselves nobles. IN last years the reign of Peter and under his closest successors, the expressions “nobility” and “gentry” are equally in use, but only since the time of Catherine II the word “gentry” completely disappears from the everyday speech of the Russian language.
So, the nobles of the times of Peter the Great are attached to serving public service for life, like the service people of Moscow times. But, remaining attached to the service all their lives, the nobles under Peter carry out this service in a rather altered form. Now they are obliged to serve in the regular regiments and in the navy and to perform civil service in all those administrative and judicial institutions that have been transformed from the old ones and have arisen anew, and the military and civil service are separated. Since service in the new army, in the navy and in new civil institutions required some education, at least some special knowledge, school preparation for service from childhood was made compulsory for the nobles.
A nobleman of the time of Peter the Great was enrolled in active service from the age of fifteen and had to begin it without fail from the “foundation”, in the words of Peter, that is, an ordinary soldier in the army or a sailor in the navy, a non-commissioned schreiber or a college junker in civilian institutions. According to the law, it was supposed to study only up to fifteen years, and then it was necessary to serve, and Peter very strictly monitored that the nobility was in business. From time to time, he arranged reviews of all adult nobles who were and were not in the service, and noble "undergrowths", as noble children who had not reached the legal age for service were called. At these reviews, held in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the tsar sometimes personally distributed the nobles and underage to regiments and schools, personally putting “wings” in the lists against the names of those who were fit for service. In 1704, Peter himself reviewed in Moscow more than 8,000 nobles convened there. The discharge clerk called out the nobles by name, and the tsar looked at the notebook and put his marks.
In addition to serving foreign teachings, the nobility carried a compulsory school service. After graduating from compulsory training, the nobleman went to the service. The undergrowths of the nobility “according to their fitness” were enrolled alone in the guards, others in the army regiments or in the “garrisons”. The Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky regiments consisted exclusively of nobles and were a kind of practical school for officers for the army. By decree of 1714, it was forbidden to make officers "from noble breeds" who did not serve as soldiers in the guard.
5. Name the changes in the life of the townspeople under Peter I.
Peter changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to the account “from the Nativity of Christ”. The year 7208 of the Byzantine era became the year 1700 from the birth of Christ, and New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, the uniform use of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.
After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I led the fight against external manifestations"outdated" way of life (the most famous ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the involvement of the nobility in education and secular Europeanized culture. Seculars began to appear educational establishments, the first Russian newspaper was founded, which was called Vedomosti, translations of many books into Russian appeared. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education.
Under Peter in 1703, the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared ("Arithmetic" by Leonty Magnitsky). Until that date, they were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1708, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified type of letters (the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature), the two letters "xi" and "psi" were excluded.
Peter created new printing houses, in which 1312 titles of books were printed in 1700-1725 (twice as many as in the entire previous history of Russian book printing). Thanks to the rise of printing, paper consumption increased from 4,000 to 8,000 sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50,000 sheets in 1719.
There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.
Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. They created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theatre, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. have changed.
By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and mingled freely, unlike earlier feasts and feasts. The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, economics, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study "arts" abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the XVIII century. "Peter's pensioners" began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.
On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702), Peter issued a decree ordering to write full names in petitions and other documents instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), not to fall on your knees in front of the tsar, in winter, in the cold, wear a hat in front of the house in which the king is, do not shoot. He explained the need for these innovations in this way: "Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the king ...".
Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) forbade forced marriage and marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least six weeks between the betrothal and the wedding, "so that the bride and groom could recognize each other." If during this time, the decree said, “the bridegroom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insisted, “there is freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to terminate the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither of the parties had the right to “strike with a forfeit”. Legislative prescriptions 1696-1704 about public festivities introduced the obligation to participate in the celebrations and festivities of all Russians, including "female".
6. What hardships did the people experience during the years of Peter's reforms? From which estates was the poll tax collected?
Peter's reforms changed the position of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-eared peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new single category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as fortresses. State. peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act as one of the parties in court, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts relating to the serfs proper were contradictory. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to put serfs in their place as defendants in court and keep them on the right for the debts of the owner. The rule was also confirmed on the transfer of the estates of the landlords who ruined their peasants to custody, and the serfs were given the opportunity to enlist in the soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Empress Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the serfs lost this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or crafts were granted the right to move into the settlements, freeing themselves from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against fugitive peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. By a decree on April 7, 1690, it was allowed to cede, for unpaid debts of "local" serfs, which was in fact a form of serf trading. The taxation of serfs (that is, personal servants without land) with a poll tax led to the merging of serfs with serfs. The church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the power of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessive. By decree of 1721, nobles and merchants-manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufactory. Posessional peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.
To the traditional customs and tavern fees were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes, tax on oak coffins, etc.) , obligatory use of stamped paper, minting coins of smaller weight (damage). The most important measure during financial reform was the introduction of a poll tax instead of the taxation that existed before that. In 1710, a "household" census was carried out, which showed a decrease in the number of households. One of the reasons for this decrease was that, in order to reduce taxes, several households were surrounded by one wattle fence, and one gate was made (this was considered one household during the census). Due to these shortcomings, it was decided to switch to a poll tax. In 1718-1724, a second census of the population was carried out in parallel with the revision of the population (revision of the census), which began in 1722. According to this revision, there were 5,967,313 people in the taxable state. Based on the data obtained, the government divided by the population the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy.
As a result, the size of the per capita tax was determined: serf landowners paid the state 74 kopecks, state peasants - 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay dues), the urban population - 1 ruble 20 kopecks. Only men were taxed, regardless of age. The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempted from the poll tax. The soul was countable - between revisions, the dead were not excluded from the tax lists, newborns were not included, as a result, the tax burden was unevenly distributed.
We study documents
1. Describe the type of document, determine (approximately).
This is a description of the estate, approximately the 17th - 18th centuries.
2. Indicate the purpose of the buildings mentioned in the text.
Svetlitsa - bright front room
Hut - a building or chamber of a large house-complex within four walls, heated by a cooking stove
Seni (senets) - the entrance part of a traditional Russian house; unheated and non-residential premises
Povalusha (gridnya) - in Russian wooden architecture, a tower in a complex of residential choirs, in which there was a room for feasts
Lutskaya (human) - a room for servants in a manor house
Zhitnitsa - a room for storing grain; barn
A threshing floor is a fenced plot of land in a peasant farm intended for storage, threshing, winnowing and other processing of grain.
Barn - a building for drying sheaves before threshing.
3. Does the document refer to receiving an estate for service or some other actions? Justify your point of view.
Apparently, the document refers to confiscation in favor of the state (“for the great sovereign”).
1. Explain the meaning of the following phrases and words from the document: “The Life-Giving Trinity of the Sergius Monastery”, “feeder”, “written in supplementary tales”, “dirty work, do not go around the world”.
"The Life-Giving Trinity of the Sergius Monastery" - belonging to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. As you know, Andrei Rublev painted his famous icon of the "Life-Giving Trinity" in "praise of St. Serigius" (of Radonezh).
"Feeder" - for food, supplies
“written in supplementary tales” - recorded in revision tales, taken into account in population census materials
“dirty work, do not go around the world” - earn money as a laborer, by physical labor, and do not ask for alms (alms)
2. Who was this document intended for? Support your opinion with a quote.
The document was intended for representatives of local authorities, "the highest gentlemen in the city as a kamentant and kamisar, or who should know this."
3. Why is it specifically noted in the text that Matvey has never been in “soldiers and dragoons and sailors”?
This emphasizes that he is not "conscripted", not a deserter.
Thinking, comparing, reflecting
1. Come up with and write down in your notebook at least 5 test tasks to test knowledge on one of the sections of the paragraph.
1) During the time of Peter 1, the nobles served:
a) for life; b) voluntarily; c) within 25 years.
2) In the time of Peter 1, nobles were considered rich if they had:
a) 20 souls of serfs; b) 100 souls; c) 1000 souls.
3) According to the Decree on single inheritance, the purchase of estates was allowed by the military
a) after 5 years of service; b) after 7 years of service; c) after 10 years of service.
4) According to the Decree of Uniform Succession, the estate after the death of the owner
a) returned to the treasury; b) passed on to one of the sons; c) divided equally among the heirs.
5) Under Peter 1, the nobles had a new duty:
a) get married b) study; c) wear a wig.
3. Create a classification of the main changes that took place in Russian society under Peter. Explain the bases you have chosen for your classification.
The main changes that took place in Russian society under Peter
1) The emergence of new and the disappearance of old groups of the population
2) Changes in legal status
3) Lifestyle changes
The classification I have proposed shows that the changes in Russian society were not only quantitative, but also qualitative, they affected various aspects of the life of society.
The main types of land tenure were hereditary fiefdom and conditional estate. Votchina- unconditional hereditary land tenure (princely, boyar, monastic).
The votchinas were divided by subjects into palace, state, church and privately owned, and according to the method of acquisition - into ancestral (a special procedure for acquiring and alienating them was established: these transactions were carried out with the consent of the whole family), served and bought (here the family was the subject of ownership: the husband and wife). Most often, the circle of powers of the granted patrimony was determined in the granted letter, which was also a formal confirmation of his legal rights to property.
Types: 1. ancestral patrimony was endowed with two privileges - 1. - the right of ancestral redemption, 2 - the right of ancestral inheritance. Family century - it was impossible to just sell or exchange it, it was considered the property of the clan as a whole and operations with it required the consent of all relatives, who also had priority when buying it from their other relatives).
2. purchased estates-in. acquired by someone not from their relatives. Acquire at. the nobles, the merchant elite, according to the conciliar code of 1649, service people had the right.
3. salaried (served) c. for service and heroism. merit. When the monarch changed, the estates were taken away if letters of grant were not issued.
4. princely v. - restriction on inheritance - transfer only through the male line, otherwise they passed into the royal domain.
The development of patrimonial landownership followed the path of the predominance of granted estates over ancestral ones. The restriction of the rights of estate owners went in parallel with the expansion of the rights of estates.
From the 15th century widespread estates, i.e. conditional (given for state service) land ownership, estates, were first given for the duration of the service, but later approached the patrimony, but by inheritance it was completely transferred only to the son, and in the absence of such, only a part was given to daughters and wife. Estates could not be sold, but could be exchanged for fiefdoms. The term "estate" was first used in the Sudebnik of 1497. The estates were distributed from the palace lands, black, overgrown lands, the sizes were different, correlated with the position they occupied. The object of local land tenure was not only arable land, but also fish, hunting grounds, city yards, etc.
On the way to the development of estates. land tenure at 16 in the king is allowed to leave opred. part of the estate to close relatives after the death of the owner. In the 2nd quarter 16th century exchange of estates is allowed, provided that the area is equal. The Code of 1649 allowed the exchange of estates by estates. At the same time, in becomes a settlement, and the estate becomes a father. From the 17th century the exchange of estates for a cash salary was widespread.
Issues of feudal land tenure were regulated in detail by chapter 16 (on estates) and chapter 17 (on estates) Cathedral Code of 1649. So, it was established that both boyars and nobles could be owners of estates; the estate was inherited by sons in a certain order; part of the land after the death of the owner was received by his wife and daughters.
In 1714, in order to reform feudal landownership, Peter I issued the Decree “On Single Inheritance”, which introduced a majorate, which meant that all landlord and patrimonial land could only be inherited by the eldest son. The heirs were given the right to buy out real estate for 40 years. The decree of March 23, 1714 "On the order of inheritance in movable and immovable property" finally equalized the legal status of estates and estates. All real estate was inherited by the eldest son, and movable property was divided between the sons of the deceased patrimony (landowner). In this regard, the state received the necessary personnel, because. the younger sons of the deceased nobleman, having lost their inheritance, had to earn a livelihood in the public service. But only one son could go to the civil service.
In the course of the reform of feudal landownership, a ban was established on the sale and other alienation (except for inheritance) of landed estates. At this time, in law, landed estates began to be called estates, and in everyday life and everyday life - estates.
Estates were granted only for real services to the state. As a result of the reform of feudal landownership, a single service landlord estate (gentry) was formed.
Initially, a mandatory condition for using the estate was real service, which began for the nobles from the age of 15. The landowner's son who entered the service was "allowed" to use the land, but when his father retired, the estate went to him for quitrent until he came of age. From the middle of the 16th century this order changed - the estate remained in the use of a retired landowner until his sons reached right age; at the same time, collateral relatives were also allowed to inherit the estate. Women did not participate in the inheritance of estates. They were allotted land only in the form of pension payments, the amounts of which were initially set arbitrarily by the state, but from the 16th century. - normalized.
One should not identify the boyars and votchinniki, as well as, respectively, the nobles and landowners. For the most part, indeed, the boyars owned estates, and the nobles - estates, but already in the 15th century. boyars-landowners appear, subsequently there are more and more of them, and, on the contrary, quite a few nobles receive estates.
In the 16th-17th centuries, during the period of the estate-representative monarchy, the legal regime of the estate and patrimony converged, and as a result of this, the legal status of the nobility and boyars, although certain differences still remain in the Cathedral Code of 1649 (until the period of Peter's reforms).
Issues of feudal land ownership were regulated in detail by chapter 16 (on estates) and chapter 17 (on estates) of the Cathedral Code of 1649. Thus, it was established that both boyars and nobles could be owners of estates; the estate was inherited by sons in a certain order; part of the land after the death of the owner was received by his wife and daughters; it was allowed to give the estate to the daughter as a dowry and to exchange the estate for the estate and for the patrimony. However, the landlords did not receive the right to freely sell the land (only by special royal order), they could not mortgage it either. True, Article 3 of Chapter XVI of the Council Code of 1649 allowed for the exchange of a larger estate for a smaller one, and thus made it possible, under the guise of this transaction, to sell the estates. The content of this and other articles of the Council Code of 1649 was influenced by the "petitions" of the nobles, who demanded an increase in the rights to the estates.
3. What was the difference between the estate and the estate?
At that time, the Muscovite state faced an important issue: pursuing a policy of ordering the estates - attaching all representatives of the estates to a specific occupation and place of residence. There were 2 ways of attachment: to the estate and to the estate.
The landowners received government land and income while they served the prince.
Votchinniki owned land by inheritance rights.
ESTATE - conditional land ownership in Russia in the late 15th - early 18th centuries, provided by the state for military administrative service. Not subject to sale, exchange and inheritance.
VOTCHINA - the oldest type of land ownership in Russia, a family estate that passed by inheritance. It arose in the 10th - 11th centuries (princely, boyar, monastic), in the 13th - 15th centuries the dominant form of land ownership.
4. Describe the stages of enslavement of Russian peasants
Stages of enslavement of the Russian peasantry Serfdom is the highest form of incomplete ownership of the feudal lord over the peasant, based on attaching the peasant to the land of the feudal lord (boyar, landowner, monastery, etc.) or the feudal state. In fact, it took shape at the end of the 16th century. The legal registration of serfdom - 1649 - "Cathedral code" the transition from feudal lord to feudal lord was finally prohibited for peasants.
Stage 1: according to Russkaya Pravda, serfs and zakup, who worked for the feudal lord, were feudal lords. Life = 5 hryvnia. If he died without heirs in the male line, the property - to the feudal lord.
2nd stage: the time of folding the centralized state. Restriction of the right to move from feudal lord to feudal lord.
3rd stage: 1497 - "Sudebnik" of Ivan III officially introduced the day of transition - St. George's day in autumn - November 26. Introduction of payment for the "elderly".
4th stage: 1550 - "Sudebnik" of Ivan IV confirms the right to go to St. George's Day and increases the fee for the "elderly".
5th stage: 1581 - the introduction of "reserved years" - years in which transitions are generally prohibited. It is not clear whether they acted on the territory of the whole of Rus'. The frequency is not clear.
6th stage: 1592 - the entire population is included in the scribe books. It became possible to establish to which feudal lord the peasants belonged. A number of historians believe that a decree was issued prohibiting the transition from feudal lord to feudal lord (the decree was not found).
7th stage: 1597 1) Decree on the search for runaway peasants. Peasants who fled after compiling the first cadastral books must be returned (the term of the investigation is 5 years). 2) Bonded serfs (slavery for debts) after paying off the debt remain assigned to the creditor. 3) Voluntary serfs (free employment) after ½ years of work - complete serfs. Both bonded and free slaves are released only after the death of the master.
8th stage: 1607 - according to the "Code" of Vasily Shuisky, the period of investigation = 15 years. Those who accepted the "fugitives" - a fine from the state, compensation to the old owner.
9th stage: 1649 - legal enslavement according to the "Cathedral Code"
5. What was the difference between the Russian manufactory of the time of Peter the Great and Western Europe? What explains the emergence of possession manufactories? in which industries and how widespread were they?
First, in the West, the emphasis was on private property, i. manufactories belonged to private individuals, while in our country manufactories belonged to the state (there is a controversial point here: in Russia there were cases when manufactories belonged to private individuals, most often to merchants, but they could only own and use them, and not dispose of them. The right of disposal remained with the state .)
In addition, in Europe the state did not interfere in the affairs of manufactories, but with us it is the other way around.
Secondly, according to the decree of 1722, workshops were created in Russia to control the activities of craftsmen. While in the west by this time the workshops had practically ceased to exist.
Thirdly, in the West, freelance labor was used, while in our country the labor of peasants was used.
Fourth, there was competition in the West, but not in Russia.
And fifthly, labor productivity at manufactories in Europe was significantly higher than in Russia
The economic nature of Russian manufactories
At the heart of the encouragement of manufacturing production was the inviolability of serfdom. Both state-owned and private factories, especially mining ones, were endowed with forced laborers. Practiced "subscription" to them by peasants whole villages and even volosts. Only the most skilled workers, as a rule, were hired.
The production sphere was supplemented by a significant number of patrimonial manufactories, where the corvée was worked out by the master's peasants, who processed agricultural raw materials produced on the estate itself.
So, in terms of their economic nature and the nature of the labor used, Russian manufactories of the 18th century. were serfs, mixed or capitalist. At state-owned manufactories, the labor of state (black-eared) or possessive peasants was used, at patrimonial - serfs. By the second half of the century, merchants, as well as peasant manufactories, began to attract the labor of hired workers.
Private manufactories in Russia, based on the right of possession. The organization of industrial production aimed at stimulating the development of industry during the period when large-scale manufactory was emerging. The largest number of P. m. Was in the metallurgical, cloth and linen industries (especially in metallurgy - the work is very hard and free peasants did not want to work there). According to the socio-economic essence of the P. m. They were of the same type as patrimonial manufactories. V. I. Lenin called cloth establishments of a possession-patrimonial nature “... an example of that original phenomenon in Russian history, which consists in the application of serf labor to industry”
He signs a new decree "On Single Inheritance", thereby trying to put an end to the countless fragmentation of noble estates and attract new people to serve the sovereign in the army. This law prescribes to leave real estate to only one person - the eldest son or daughter, or according to the will of the owner to someone else.
Important step
In 1714, Peter adopted the law "On Single Inheritance" in order to erase the boundary between the concept of "patrimony" (land ownership, which the feudal lord has, with the right to sell, donate) and the estate. This is beneficial for the king, since the one who accepts the inheritance must be in the service of the sovereign for life. It also led to the strengthening of the economy of the landowners.
Was the decree "On Single Inheritance" issued under the influence of the West?
Initially, one might think that Peter was under the influence of Western countries, he was interested in order in England, Venice, France. Inspired by a foreign example, Peter I determined the transfer of all property to one, eldest son.
The Decree "On Single Inheritance" was significantly different from its European counterpart, it did not leave the right to own property exclusively for the eldest son, but provided for the appointment of any heir, excluding the fragmentation of the land allotment, estates.
Thus, the formation of noble property was observed, legally it was a completely different concept of the transfer of property by inheritance. Peter created the exclusive concept of a family nest, linking the unlimited hereditary and hereditary service of the owner for many years.
Decree "On uniform inheritance": service as a way of acquiring property
In this law, lifelong service in the army remained the main goal. They tried to get away from this in various ways, but the state severely punished those who did not appear on call.
This decree had more disadvantages: now the owner could not sell or mortgage the property. In fact, Peter equated the difference between the estate and the estate, creating a new legal type of property. In order for the indicated decree "On Uniform Inheritance" to be respected and there were no ways to get around it, Peter I introduces a huge tax (duty) on the sale of land property (even for the children of a nobleman).
Subsequently, the law forbade the purchase of estates for younger children if they had not completed a certain period of service in the army (meaning cadet corps). If the nobleman, in principle, did not serve, then the acquisition of landed property by him became impossible. This amendment could not be circumvented, since they were not taken to serve in the army only if a person had obvious signs of dementia or serious health problems.
The order of inheritance of property
Peter's decree "On Single Inheritance" dictated the age order of ownership of real estate. From the age of 20, the heir could dispose of landed property, from the age of 18 it was allowed to lead women, this amendment applied from the age of 17. It was this age that was considered marriageable in Rus'. To some extent, this law protected the heir was obliged to keep the immovable property of his younger brothers and sisters, to take care of them free of charge until they are fully
The essence of the decree of Peter I
Dissatisfaction arose among the nobility, since this document was to please one person, often forcing others to remain in poverty. In order for the property to pass to the daughter, her husband had to take the name of the testator, otherwise everything passed to the state. In the event of the death of the eldest son before the father, the inheritance passed by seniority to the next son, and not to the grandson of the testator.
The essence of the decree "On Single Inheritance" was that if a nobleman's eldest daughter married before his death, then the entire estate passed to the next daughter (also by seniority). In the absence of children from the heir, all property passed to the eldest relative in the nearest. If the heir had a widow after his death, then she received a lifetime right to own her husband’s property, but according to the amendment of 1716, she got one fourth of the property.
The dissatisfaction of the nobles and the abolition of the decree
The decree of Peter I met with strong discontent in society, as it affected the interests of the nobility. The interpretations in the law contradicted themselves. The nobility did not share the sovereign's views on the decree "On Single Succession". The year 1725 brought significant changes, loosening the original attitudes. Such an action provoked even greater misunderstanding, and as a result, in 1730, Empress Anna Ioannovna completely canceled it. The official reason for the annulment of the decree was that in practice it was not possible to achieve the economic justification of the legacy of real estate.
In 1714, the decree "On Single Inheritance" issued by Peter I led to the fact that in all possible ways fathers tried to divide their property equally among all children.
This law indicated that all sons and children of the deceased were involved in the inheritance. The grandchildren of the testator received a share of their father, who died before the testator. Including other relatives, and the spouse of the testator, who received her part of the property, were called to the inheritance. In the absence of close relatives, the inheritance was transferred to the brothers of the deceased according to seniority. If the testator had no relatives or in the case of movable and immovable property passed to the state.
