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The great Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) developed the heliocentric system of the world. He made a revolution in natural science, abandoning the doctrine of the central position of the Earth, accepted for many centuries. Copernicus explained the visible movements of the heavenly bodies by the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the revolution of the planets, including the Earth, around the Sun. Nicholas Copernicus

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History reference about N. Copernicus The famous astronomer, the converter of this science and laid the foundation for modern idea about the system of the world. They argued a lot about whether K. was a Pole or a German; now his nationality is not in doubt, since a list of students at the University of Padua has been found, in which K. is recorded among the Poles who studied there. Born in Thorn, in a merchant family. In 1491 he entered the University of Krakow, where he studied mathematics, medicine and theology with equal zeal. At the end of the course K. traveled to Germany and Italy, listened to lectures on various universities, and at one time even he himself was a professor in Rome; in 1503 he returned to Krakow and lived there for seven whole years, being a university professor and doing astronomical observations. However, the noisy life of university corporations was not to K.'s liking, and in 1510 he moved to Frauenburg, a small town on the banks of the Vistula, where he spent the rest of his life, being a canon of a Catholic church and devoting his leisure time to astronomy and gratuitous treatment of patients

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Copernicus believed that the Universe is limited by the sphere of fixed stars, which are located at unimaginably huge, but still finite distances from us and from the Sun. In the teachings of Copernicus, the vastness of the universe and its infinity were affirmed. Copernicus also for the first time in astronomy not only gave the correct scheme of the structure of the solar system, but also determined the relative distances of the planets from the sun and calculated the period of their revolution around it.

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Heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus The Sun is in the center of the world. Only the Moon moves around the Earth. The Earth is the third planet farthest from the Sun. It revolves around the Sun and rotates around its own axis. At a very great distance from the Sun, Copernicus placed the "sphere of the fixed stars."

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Copernicus simply and naturally explained the loop-like motion of the planets by the fact that we observe planets revolving around the Sun not from a stationary Earth, but from an Earth that also moves around the Sun.

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The heliocentric system of the world The great Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) outlined his system of the world in the book celestial spheres”, published in the year of his death. In this book, he proved that the universe is not arranged in the way that religion has claimed for many centuries. In all countries, for almost a millennium and a half, the false teaching of Ptolemy, who claimed that the Earth rests motionless in the center of the Universe, dominated the minds of people. The followers of Ptolemy, for the sake of the church, came up with more and more new “explanations” and “proofs” of the movement of the planets around the Earth in order to preserve the “truth” and “holiness” of his false teaching. But from this, the Ptolemaic system became more and more far-fetched and artificial.

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Long before Ptolemy, the Greek scientist Aristarchus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. Later, in the Middle Ages, advanced scientists shared the point of view of Aristarchus on the structure of the world and rejected the false teachings of Ptolemy. Shortly before Copernicus, the great Italian scientists Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo da Vinci argued that the Earth moves, that it is not at all in the center of the Universe and does not occupy an exceptional position in it. Why, in spite of this, did the Ptolemaic system continue to dominate? Because it relied on the all-powerful church authority, which suppressed free thought, hindered the development of science. In addition, scientists who rejected the teachings of Ptolemy and expressed correct views on the structure of the Universe could not yet convincingly substantiate them.

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This was done only by Nicolaus Copernicus. After thirty years of hard work, long reflections and complex mathematical calculations, he showed that the Earth is only one of the planets, and all the planets revolve around the Sun. With his book, he challenged church authorities, exposing their complete ignorance in matters of the universe. Copernicus did not live to see the time when his book spread throughout the world, revealing to people the truth about the universe. He was near death when friends brought and put the first copy of the book into his cold hands.

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Copernicus was born in 1473 in the Polish city of Torun. He lived in difficult times when Poland and its neighbor - Russian state- continued the centuries-old struggle with the invaders - the Teutonic knights and the Tatar-Mongols, who sought to enslave the Slavic peoples. Copernicus lost his parents early. He was raised by his maternal uncle Lukasz Watzelrode, an outstanding public and political figure of that time. The thirst for knowledge possessed Copernicus from childhood. At first he studied at home. Then he continued his education at Italian universities. Of course, astronomy was studied there according to Ptolemy, but Copernicus carefully studied all the surviving works of great mathematicians and ancient astronomy.

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Even then, he had thoughts about the correctness of Aristarchus' guesses, about the falsity of Ptolemy's system. But Copernicus was not engaged in a single astronomy. He studied philosophy, law, medicine and returned to his homeland a comprehensively educated man for his time.

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What does the book of Copernicus “On the rotation of the heavenly spheres” contain and why did it deal such a crushing blow to the Ptolemaic system, which, with all its flaws, had been kept for fourteen centuries under the auspices of the omnipotent church authority in that era? In this book, Nicolaus Copernicus argued that the Earth and other planets are satellites of the sun. He showed that it is the movement of the Earth around the sun and its daily rotation around its axis that explains the apparent movement of the Sun, the strange entanglement in the movement of the planets and the apparent rotation of the firmament.

Becoming heliocentric
world systems
Anikeeva G.A.,
Physics teacher
GBOU secondary school №87
Petersburg
900game.net

The first ideas of people about
Universe
In ancient Russia
believed that the earth
flat and holding
on three whales
who swim in
boundless ocean.

Ancient Greece
Ancient Greeks
imagine the earth
flat disk surrounded by
inaccessible to man
sea, from which each
evening go out and at which
every morning the stars set.
From the eastern sea to the golden
the chariot went up
sun god every morning
Helios and made his way
across the sky

ancient india
earth in the form
hemispheres hold
four elephants.
Elephants stand on
giant turtle,
and a turtle on a snake,
which,
curled up
ring, closes
near-Earth
space.

Geocentric system of the world
Claudius Ptolemy
(87-165 AD)

The looping motion of the planets
Every planet moves
evenly around the circle - the epicycle,
whose center is evenly
moving around in circles
radius - to the deferent. In the center
the deferent is Earth.

Heliocentric system of the world
Nicholas Copernicus
1473 – 1543

Heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus
At the center of the world is
Sun. Around the Earth
only the moon moves.
Earth is the third
distance from the sun
planet. She is drawn
around the sun and revolves
around its axis.
On a very large
distance from the sun
Copernicus placed the "sphere
fixed stars."

The looping motion of the planets
Copernicus explained the loop-like motion of the planets by the fact that we
we observe planets revolving around the sun not from a fixed
Earth, but from the Earth, also moving around the Sun.

Development and philosophical reflection
heliocentric system
Giordano Bruno developed
heliocentric theory
Copernicus, stating:
about the multiplicity of worlds, about
the limitlessness of the universe,
that the stars are distant suns,
around which they revolve
planets,
Giordano Bruno
1548 – 1600

Accused of heresy by the Inquisition, Bruno refused to admit that
main of his theories and was sentenced by the Catholic Church to
the death penalty, and then burned at the stake in Campo di Fiore
Rome in February 1600.
Bruno's last words were: "To burn is not to refute."

Proof

Thanks to the invention of the telescope (1609)
Galileo was able to make very interesting
discoveries and prove justice
heliocentric system.
Galileo Galilei
1564 – 1642

Discoveries of Galileo

scientific explanation
heliocentric system of the world
Isaac Newton discovered the law
universal gravitation, gave
theory of celestial motion
bodies, creating the foundations of the heavenly
mechanics.
Isaac Newton
1643 – 1727

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Presentation on the topic: World system

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1. Stonehenge Observatory of the Bronze Age This structure of giant stones with horizontal bars laid on vertical blocks is located in the south of England. It has long attracted the attention of scientists. But only recently modern methods archeology managed to prove that its construction began over 4000 years ago, on the border of the Stone and Bronze Ages. In plan, Stonehenge is a series of almost exact circles with a common center, along which huge stones are placed at regular intervals. The outer row of stones has a diameter of about 100 meters. Their location is symmetrical to the direction to the sunrise point on the day of the summer solstice, and some directions correspond to the directions to the sunrise and sunset points on the equinoxes and on some other days. Undoubtedly, Stonehenge served both for astronomical observations and for the performance of some rituals of a cult nature, since in those distant eras heavenly bodies were attributed divine significance. Similar structures have been found in many places in the British Isles, as well as in Brittany (northwest France) and the Orkney Islands.

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2. Ideas about the world of the ancient Egyptians In their ideas about the surrounding world, the ancient peoples proceeded primarily from the testimony of their sense organs: the Earth seemed to them flat, and the sky - a huge dome spread over the Earth. The picture shows how the firmament rests on four high mountains located somewhere at the end of the world! Egypt nah-Xia in the center of the Earth. The celestial bodies seem to be suspended on a dome. AT Ancient Egypt there was a cult of the sun god Ra, who travels around the sky in his chariot. This drawing is on a wall inside one of the pyramids.

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3. Representations of the world of the peoples of Mesopotamia Close to the ancient Egyptian were the ideas of the Chaldeans - the peoples who inhabited Mesopotamia, starting from the 7th century BC. According to their views, the Universe was a closed world, in the center of which was the Earth, resting on the surface of the world's waters and representing a huge mountain. Between the Earth and the "dam of heaven" - a high impenetrable wall that surrounded the world - there was a sea that was considered forbidden. Everyone who would try to explore it gave, was doomed to death. The Chaldeans considered the sky to be a large dome, towering over the world and resting on the "dam of heaven." It is made of solid metal by the supreme boron Marduk. During the day the sky reflects sunlight, and at night served as a dark blue background for the game of the gods - the planets, the moon and the stars.

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4. The Universe According to the Ancient Greeks Like many other peoples, they imagined the Earth as flat. This opinion, for example, was held by the ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus. He explained all the phenomena of nature on the basis of a single material principle, which he considered water. He considered the earth to be a flat disk, surrounded by a sea inaccessible to man, from which stars come and go every evening. From the eastern sea in a golden chariot, the sun god Helios rose every morning and made his way across the sky. Later, the Pythagoreans departed from the theory of Thales, suggesting the roundness of the earth. A. Samossky argued that the Earth, together with other planets, revolves around the sun. For this he was exiled.

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5. The system of the world according to Aristotle The great Greek philosopher Aristotle understood that the Earth has the shape of a ball and cited one of the strongest proofs of this - the round shape of the Earth's shadow on the Moon during lunar eclipses. He also understood that the Moon is a dark ball, illuminated by the Sun and revolving around the Earth. But Aristotle considered the Earth to be the center of the world. He considered matter to be composed of four elements that form four spheres: earth, water, air and fire. Even further away are the spheres of the planets - the seven luminaries moving between the stars. Farther away is the sphere of the fixed stars. Aristotle's teachings were progressive from the point of view of science, although his worldview was idealistic, since he recognized the divine principle. Later, all this was used by the church against the advanced ideas of the supporters of the heliocentric system of world order. This is a water clock - the main instrument for measuring time in antiquity, along with a sundial.

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6. Ptolemy's system of the world Astronomer Claudius Ptolemy, who worked in Alexandria in the 2nd century AD. e. He summed up the work of ancient Greek astronomers, mainly Hipparchus, as well as his own observations and built a perfect theory of planetary motion based on the geocentric system of the world of Aristotle. To explain the observed looping movements of the planets, Ptolemy proposed that they move in small circles (epicycles) around some points that already revolve around the Earth. To account for the eccentricity of planetary orbits, he had to introduce additional epicycles. Despite its cumbersomeness and unreasonableness, the Ptolemaic system remained generally accepted for 15 centuries, until it was refuted by Copernicus. The Catholic Church played a significant role in strengthening the position of the Ptolemaic system.

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7. Astronomical ideas in India The sacred books of the ancient Hindus reflect their ideas about the structure of the world, which have much in common with the views of the Egyptians. According to these ideas, a flat Earth with a huge mountain in the center is supported by 4 elephants who stand on a huge turtle floating in the ocean. In 400-650, a cycle of mathematical and astronomical works, the so-called Sidhanta, written by various authors, was created in India. In these works, we already meet a picture of the world with a spherical Earth in the center and circular orbits around it, close to the system of the world of Aristotle and slightly simplified compared to the system of Ptolemy. The rotation of the Earth around its axis is mentioned several times. From India, astronomical knowledge began to spread to the west, primarily to the Arabs and peoples Central Asia. This is the sundial of the observatory in Delhi.

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8. Observatories of the ancient Maya In Central America in 250-900 reached high development astronomy of the Mayan peoples, who inhabited the southern part of modern Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. The main structures of the Maya have survived to this day. The picture shows a Mayan observatory (circa 900). In shape, this structure reminds us of modern observatories, but the Mayan stone dome did not rotate around its axis and there were no telescopes at the bottom. Observations of celestial bodies were made with the naked eye using goniometers. The Maya had a cult of Venus, which was reflected in their calendar, built on the synodic period of Venus (the period of changing the configurations of Venus relative to the Sun), equal to 584 days. After 900, the Mayan culture began to decline, and then ceased to exist altogether. Their cultural heritage was destroyed by conquerors and monks. The back depicts the head of the Sun God of the ancient Maya.

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9. Ideas about the world in the Middle Ages In the Middle Ages, under the influence of the Catholic Church, there was a return to the primitive ideas of antiquity about flat earth and the hemispheres of the sky resting on it. It depicts observations of the sky with the primitive instruments of astronomers of the 13th century.

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10. The great Uzbek astronomer Ulugbek One of the remarkable astronomers of the Middle Ages is Muhammedd Taragbaiblin Ulugbekblin, the grandson of the famous conqueror Timurablin. Having been appointed by his father Shakhruhomblin as the ruler of Samarblinkard, Ulugbekblin built an observatory there, where a giant quadrant with a radius of 40 meters was installed, which had no equal among goniometric objects of that time. The catalog of positions of 1018 stars compiled by Ulugbekblin surpassed others in accuracy and was reprinted many times in Europe until the 17th century. Ulugbekblin determined the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, the constant of the annual procession, he also compiled tables of the motion of the planets. Educational activities Ulugbekblin and his disdain for religion angered the Muslim church. He was treacherously killed. Here is shown a slab of the Ulugbekblin quadrant with degree divisions.

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11. Determining the position on the high seas with the help of a sextant. Successes in navigation and the era of the great geographical discoveries demanded a new development of astronomy, since the position of the ship in the ocean could only be determined by astronomical means. The drawing, made according to the original by I. Stradanus and the engraving by I. Galle (1520), shows the captain of the ship, determining the height of the Sun above the horizon with the help of a sextant - a device that allows, by turning a flat mirror, to combine the image of the Sun with the horizon and according to the reading on the scale, determine the angle of elevation of the sun above the horizon. Latitude and longitude were determined graphically on the map. To determine latitudes and longitudes, until the 1111th century, the astrolabe was also used - a goniometric device with which it was possible to measure both the azimuths and the zenith distances of the luminaries. The back of the postcard depicts the astrolabe of the German astronomer of the second half of the 15th century, I. Regiomontanus, made in 1468.

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12. Celestial globe The location of the constellations and stars in the sky was conveniently depicted on its reduced model - the celestial globe. The first celestial globes in Europe began to be made in mid-sixteenth century in Germany, however, in the East, such globes appeared much earlier - in the second half of the XIII century. A celestial globe has been preserved, made in the observatory in Marat under the guidance of the remarkable Azerbaijani astronomer Nasi-raddin Tuya by master Mohammed bin Muyid el Ordi in 1279. The painting depicts a celestial globe of 1584. described and apparently used by the 16th century Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. The celestial equator, ecliptic, declination circles and latitude circles are marked on it, converging to the celestial pole and to the ecliptic pole, respectively. The horizontal ring enclosing the globe means the horizon plane. A vertical circle with divisions in the plane of the picture is the celestial meridian. The globe depicts the symbolic outlines of the constellations and the stars visible to the naked eye (except the weakest ones) are applied.

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13. Study of an astronomer from the early 16th century The painting was made on the basis of a modern drawing by I. Stradanus, engraved by I. Galle around 1520. We see an astronomer of the early 16th century, a contemporary of Copernicus. Using a compass, he measures the position of a star on the planisphere (the image of a sphere on a plane). Nearby, on his table, is a celestial globe, an hourglass, a square, tables with which he compares his measurements. On another table we see an armillary sphere (a model of the main circles of the celestial sphere), an eclimeter, books, and other instruments. In the foreground - a model of the Universe with a solid Earth in the center, planetary orbits are visible around it. In the background is a model ship of that era. The main task of astronomers of that time was to exact definition the positions of the stars and the moon, according to which the longitude was determined. In addition, astronomers of that era tried to improve the theory of planetary motion, based on the Ptolemaic system of the world.

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14. Portrait of Copernicus The great Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) revolutionized the worldview by proving that the Earth is not in the center of the world, but is an ordinary planet revolving around the Sun. The son of a merchant, Copernicus received an excellent education, first at the University of Krakow, and then at the universities of Italy. In addition to astronomy, he studied law and medicine. Having become acquainted with the system of the world of Ptolemy, Copernicus became convinced of its inconsistency and already in his youth began to develop the heliocentric system of the world. In the course of this work, Copernicus compiled an accurate catalog of the positions of the stars, systematically observed the positions of the planets. Only after being convinced of the validity of his theory, Copernicus gave his work "On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres" to the press. The book was published on the eve of Copernicus' death.

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15. System of the world according to Copernicus According to the heliocentric system of the world, the center of our planetary system is the Sun. The planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn revolve around it (in order of distance from the Sun). The only celestial body that revolves around the Earth is the Moon. The value of the work of Copernicus is difficult to overestimate. F. Engels wrote about this: “The revolutionary act by which the study of nature declared its independence ... was the publication of an immortal creation, in which Copernicus threw down - albeit timidly and, so to speak, only on his deathbed - a challenge to church authority tetu in matters of nature. The theory of Copernicus was further developed in the works of I. Kepler and I. Newton, of which the first discovered the kinematic laws of planetary motion, and the second discovered the force that controls these movements, the force of universal gravitation. Great importance Galileo's telescopic discoveries and the propaganda of this system of the world by Giordano Bruno in the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries had to confirm the Copernican system.

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16. The sun and comets on ancient images of astronomers The very first telescopic observations of Galileo led to the discovery of spots on the Sun. However, their nature was incomprehensible to the first observers. During total solar eclipses, prominences resembling fiery fountains were observed at the edge of the Sun. The drawing depicts the view of the Sun according to the observations of A. Kircher and P. Scheiner in 1635 according to the drawing of the first. Spots on the Sun were then considered breaks in the outer hot layer of the Sun, under which there are much colder layers suitable for life. "Tailed luminaries" - comets - in ancient times and in the Middle Ages terrified superstitious people. Even people close to science depicted comets in the form of swords, following the assurances of the clergy that they are signs of God's wrath. Other images are more realistic. For the picture on the postcard, images of comets from the second half of the 15th century were used.

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Creators of the program: Head: Chukovetskaya L. S. Physics teacher School No. 1 G. Shelekhov 2005. Press any key

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The science of the stars is rightfully considered one of the most ancient sciences on Earth. Its history coincides with the history of the development of mankind from the very beginning of civilization to the present day. And its content has always been the basis of the worldview. This program tells about the successes and achievements of the "great science of the stars", about the ongoing battle of ideas, about space. Press any key

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How ancient philosophers built the Universe One of the first scientists is called the ancient Greek philosopher Thales. Arguing about the structure of the world, Thales decided that the basis of everything is water. From the water, the Earth and everything else was formed. Water surrounded the Earth on all sides. But what was the Earth itself? Here the thinker and the traveler were overcome by doubts. On the one hand, the experience of common sense and the science of the wise Egyptian priests spoke for the fact that the Earth is a flat body surrounded by water. But on the other hand... Thales peered into the horizon. Each time the galley approached the shores, first the tops of the mountains appeared from the sea, then the middle part of the hills, and only then the low-lying shores. "The Chaldeans and the Phoenicians claimed that the Earth was a hunchback. Or maybe the Earth is a ball? ... A ball in the center of a sphere of fixed stars? ... " Such a model of the world turned out to be complete and harmonious. Press any key

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According to Thales of Miletus, the universe was still a flat disk of the Earth, surrounded by an ocean. This whole structure was enclosed in a celestial sphere, which rotated around fixed points - poles, carrying fixed stars on itself. The question of the nature of the Sun, Moon and planets was still not entirely clear. Some people have seriously suggested that the Sun and Moon are flammable clouds that cross the sky from sunrise to sunset, after which they burn up and "fall into a hole". And to replace them tomorrow, a new Sun and a new Moon are lit. Anaximander, a disciple and follower of Thales, believed that the Earth is in the center of the world and has the shape of a cylinder. Anaximander in his hypothesis did not need water to support the earth's cylinder. The earth, in his opinion, itself held in the middle of a huge celestial sphere. Press any key

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The system of the world according to Pythagoras The very first philosopher, whose school dealt with the questions of the form and position of the Earth more than others, was Pythagoras. The Pythagoreans were the first, and this is known for certain from ancient manuscripts, who spoke out for the fact that the Earth is a ball. Legends attribute to Pythagoras the idea that not only the stars are attached to the celestial sphere, once a day they form around the globe. Each of the seven moving luminaries also had its own spheres. Pythagoras even calculated their radii. In his opinion, they were related to each other, like the lengths of the strings, which give the correct musical intervals. Press any key

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Pythagorean system of the world Planet Planet Sun Planet Earth Polar star Planet Press any key

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Philolaus' system of the world One hundred years after Pythagoras, one of the followers of his theories named Philolaus founded his own school. He began to teach that heaven and earth are not fundamentally different from each other. It was a dangerous statement. For if the sky and the Earth are one and the same, then why should the gods differ from people?... His picture - in the middle of the Universe - is the "central fire". Not the sun, no! It's just a kind of "central fire", around which "ten divine spheres" circle under divine influence - ten transparent shells that support celestial bodies. They went in this order: closest to the "central fire" the spheres of Earth and Counter-Earth rotated. Next came the spheres: the Moon, the Sun, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury and the spheres of the fixed stars. Only 10! The sun, according to Thales, was a cold mirror that only reflects the rays of the "central fire" to the Earth. Press any key

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World System Philolaus Planet Planet Sun Planet Earth Polaris Planet Press any key

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The system of the world according to Aristotle The Greek philosopher Aristotle pays much attention to the questions of the structure of the world. Aristotle believed that the earth is at the center of the universe. Aristotle tried to explain with reasons that are close to the common sense of the observer. So, observing the Moon, he noticed that in various phases it exactly corresponds to the form that he took on a ball, on one side illuminated by the Sun. Equally rigorous and logical was his proof of the sphericity of the Earth. Having discussed everything possible reasons eclipse of the moon, Aristotle came to the conclusion that the shadow on its surface can only belong to the Earth. And since this shadow is round, then the body that casts it must have the same shape. Press any key

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Aristotle's system of the world A B Part of the sky as seen from point A Press any key

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The system of the world of Aristarchus of Samos Among the famous ancient Greek astronomers of the Alexandrian school, the names of Aristarchus of Samos, Aristillus and Timocharis should be mentioned. The system of Aristarchus is more correct than the old and centric system. The picture of the world with the Earth at the center of the Universe was more developed. Press any key

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World system of Aristarchus of Samos Planet Planet Sun Planet Earth Planet Press any key

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Hipparchus' system of the world Based on this system, astronomers were able to determine the size of the ball, its radius, and the distances to the planets, to the sphere of fixed stars, and so on. Hipparchus compiled tables unsurpassed in accuracy, allowing you to calculate the position of the Sun for any day of the year. Thanks to the work of Hipparchus, the astrologer could predict solar eclipse within a few hours. Press any key

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Eccentric position of the Earth according to Hipparchus Summer Spring Autumn Zama Press any key

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Ptolemy's system of the world The last remarkable astronomer of that era was Claudius Ptolemy. Ptolemy developed and completed the geocentric system of the world. Ptolemy based his system on the physics of Aristotle: the Universe is spatially limited and closed by a sphere of fixed stars, which rotates, making one revolution per day. At the center of the Universe is a motionless spherical Earth. And all the planets, including the Sun and the Moon, make revolutions around the Earth, moving along epicycles. Press any key

Nicolaus Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicus was born in 1473 in the Polish city of Torun. He lived in a difficult time, when Poland and its neighbor, the Russian state, continued the centuries-old struggle against the invaders, the Teutonic knights of the Tatar-Mongols, who sought to enslave the Slavic peoples. Copernicus lost his parents early. He was raised by his maternal uncle Lukasz Watzelrode, an outstanding public and political figure of that time. The thirst for knowledge possessed Copernicus from childhood. At first he studied at home. Then he continued his education at Italian universities. Of course, astronomy was studied there according to Ptolemy, but Copernicus carefully studied all the surviving works of great mathematicians and ancient astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus was born in 1473, in the Polish city of Torun. He lived in a difficult time, when Poland and its neighbor, the Russian state, continued the centuries-old struggle against the invaders, the Teutonic knights of the Tatar-Mongols, who sought to enslave the Slavic peoples. Copernicus lost his parents early. He was raised by his maternal uncle Lukasz Watzelrode, an outstanding public and political figure of that time. The thirst for knowledge possessed Copernicus from childhood. At first he studied at home. Then he continued his education at Italian universities. Of course, astronomy was studied there according to Ptolemy, but Copernicus carefully studied all the surviving works of great mathematicians and ancient astronomy

Heliocentric system in Copernican variant When Copernicus - almost 500 years ago - expressed his firm belief that the earth moves around the Sun, Luther exclaimed: This madman wants to turn all astronomical science upside down. But as recorded in the Scriptures, it was the Sun, and not the Earth, that Joshua ordered to stop. In 1508, Copernicus wrote: What seems to us to be the movement of the Sun is in fact not due to the fact that it is moving, but because the Earth is moving. Reflecting on the Ptolemaic system of the world, Copernicus was amazed at its complexity and artificiality, and, studying the writings of ancient philosophers, especially Nikita of Syracuse and Philolaus, he came to the conclusion that not the Earth, but the Sun should be the motionless center of the Universe, but at the same time he retained the ideal circular orbits and even considered it necessary to preserve the epicycles and deferents of the ancients in order to explain the uneven movements. Copernicus briefly formulated his idea of ​​the heliocentric system in the Small Commentary. When Copernicus - almost 500 years ago - expressed his firm conviction that the earth moves around the sun, Luther exclaimed: This madman wants to turn the whole of astronomical science upside down. But as recorded in the Scriptures, it was the Sun, and not the Earth, that Joshua ordered to stop. In 1508, Copernicus wrote: What seems to us to be the movement of the Sun is in fact not due to the fact that it is moving, but because the Earth is moving. Reflecting on the Ptolemaic system of the world, Copernicus was amazed at its complexity and artificiality, and, studying the writings of ancient philosophers, especially Nikita of Syracuse and Philolaus, he came to the conclusion that not the Earth, but the Sun should be the motionless center of the Universe, but at the same time he retained the ideal circular orbits and even considered it necessary to preserve the epicycles and deferents of the ancients in order to explain the uneven movements. Copernicus briefly formulated his idea of ​​the heliocentric system in the Small Commentary.

In it, Copernicus introduces seven axioms that will make it possible to explain and describe the motion of the planets much easier than in the Ptolemaic theory: - orbits and celestial spheres do not have a common center; - the center of the Earth is not the center of the universe, but only the center of mass and orbit of the Moon; - all the planets move in orbits, the center of which is the Sun, and therefore the Sun is the center of the world; - the distance between the Earth and the Sun is very small compared to the distance between the Earth and the fixed stars; - the daily movement of the Sun is imaginary, and is caused by the effect of the rotation of the Earth, which rotates once every 24 hours around its axis, which always remains parallel to itself; - the earth (together with the Moon, like other planets), revolves around the Sun, and therefore those movements that the Sun seems to make (daily movement, as well as annual movement when the Sun moves around the Zodiac) are nothing more than the effect of the Earth's movement ; - this movement of the Earth and other planets explains their location and the specific characteristics of the movement of the planets. These statements completely contradicted the prevailing at that time geocentric system. Although, from a modern point of view, the Copernican model is not radical enough. All the orbits in it are circular, the movement along them is uniform, so the epicycles had to be preserved, although they became fewer than those of Ptolemy. In it, Copernicus introduces seven axioms that will make it possible to explain and describe the motion of the planets much easier than in the Ptolemaic theory: - orbits and celestial spheres do not have a common center; - the center of the Earth is not the center of the universe, but only the center of mass and orbit of the Moon; - all the planets move in orbits, the center of which is the Sun, and therefore the Sun is the center of the world; - the distance between the Earth and the Sun is very small compared to the distance between the Earth and the fixed stars; - the daily movement of the Sun is imaginary, and is caused by the effect of the rotation of the Earth, which rotates once every 24 hours around its axis, which always remains parallel to itself; - the earth (together with the Moon, like other planets), revolves around the Sun, and therefore those movements that the Sun seems to make (daily movement, as well as annual movement when the Sun moves around the Zodiac) are nothing more than the effect of the Earth's movement ; - this movement of the Earth and other planets explains their location and the specific characteristics of the movement of the planets. These statements completely contradicted the geocentric system that prevailed at that time. Although, from a modern point of view, the Copernican model is not radical enough. All the orbits in it are circular, the movement along them is uniform, so the epicycles had to be preserved, although they became fewer than those of Ptolemy. Axioms

After 1531, his activity in the affairs of the chapter and his social activity, although back in 1541 he served as chairman of the construction fund of the chapter. Long years of life told. 60 years old age, which in the XVI century was already considered quite advanced. But scientific activity Copernicus did not stop. He did not stop medical practice, and his fame as a skilled physician steadily increased. As a canon, Nicolaus Copernicus was required to observe a celibate vow of celibacy. But over the years, he felt more and more lonely, more and more clearly felt the need for a close and devoted being, but he met Anna, who lived at his house for a long time. After 1531, his activity in the affairs of the chapter and his social activities began to decline, although as early as 1541 he served as chairman of the building fund of the chapter. Long years of life told. 60 years old age, which in the XVI century was already considered quite advanced. But the scientific activity of Copernicus did not stop. He did not stop medical practice, and his fame as a skilled physician steadily increased. As a canon, Nicolaus Copernicus was required to observe a celibate vow of celibacy. But over the years, he felt more and more lonely, more and more clearly felt the need for a close and devoted being, but he met Anna, who lived at his house for a long time.

"On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres" The main and almost only work of Copernicus, the fruit of more than 40 years of his work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ("On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres") was published in Nuremberg in 1543; it is divided into 6 parts (books) and was printed under the supervision of the best student of Copernicus, Rheticus. In the preface to the book, Copernicus writes: Considering how absurd this doctrine must seem, I hesitated for a long time to publish my book and thought whether it would not be better to follow the example of the Pythagoreans and others, who transmitted their doctrine only to friends, spreading it only through tradition. In terms of structure, the main work of Copernicus almost repeats the Almagest in a somewhat abridged form (6 books instead of 13). The first part speaks of the sphericity of the world and the Earth, and instead of the position of the immobility of the Earth, another axiom is placed. The Earth and other planets revolve around the axis and around the Sun. This concept is argued in detail, and the "opinion of the ancients" is convincingly refuted. From heliocentric positions, he easily explains the return motion of the planets. The main and almost the only work of Copernicus, the fruit of more than 40 years of his work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ("On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres") was published in Nuremberg in 1543; it is divided into 6 parts (books) and was printed under the supervision of the best student of Copernicus, Rheticus. In the preface to the book, Copernicus writes: Considering how absurd this doctrine must seem, I hesitated for a long time to publish my book and thought whether it would not be better to follow the example of the Pythagoreans and others, who transmitted their doctrine only to friends, spreading it only through tradition. In terms of structure, the main work of Copernicus almost repeats the Almagest in a somewhat abridged form (6 books instead of 13). The first part speaks of the sphericity of the world and the Earth, and instead of the position of the immobility of the Earth, another axiom is placed. The Earth and other planets revolve around the axis and around the Sun. This concept is argued in detail, and the "opinion of the ancients" is convincingly refuted. From heliocentric positions, he easily explains the return motion of the planets. book preface

Significance of heliocentrism in the history of science The main merit of Copernicus was the substantiation of the position that the apparent movement of the Sun and stars is explained not by their circulation around the Earth, but by the daily rotation of the Earth itself around its own axis and its annual revolution around the Sun. This very idea of ​​heliocentrism, expressed in antiquity by Aristarchus of Samos, was given a scientific form and the geocentric teaching of Claudius Ptolemy, which had previously prevailed and was officially supported by the church fathers, was rejected. The theory developed by Copernicus allowed him, for the first time in the history of the science of the sky, to draw reasonable conclusions about the actual location of the planets in solar system and to determine their relative distances from the Sun with very high accuracy. Any of the provisions of the teachings of Copernicus was a great discovery, important not only for astronomy, but also for natural science in general. However, even more important was the significance of the theory of Copernicus for the revolution in the worldview of mankind, which was directly or indirectly caused by it. The main merit of Copernicus was the substantiation of the position that the apparent movement of the Sun and stars is explained not by their circulation around the Earth, but by the daily rotation of the Earth itself around its own axis and its annual revolution around the Sun. This very idea of ​​heliocentrism, expressed in antiquity by Aristarchus of Samos, was given a scientific form and the geocentric teaching of Claudius Ptolemy, which had previously prevailed and was officially supported by the church fathers, was rejected. The theory developed by Copernicus allowed him, for the first time in the history of the science of the sky, to draw reasonable conclusions about the actual location of the planets in the solar system and to determine their relative distances from the Sun with very high accuracy. Any of the provisions of the teachings of Copernicus was a great discovery, important not only for astronomy, but also for natural science in general. However, even more important was the significance of the theory of Copernicus for the revolution in the worldview of mankind, which was directly or indirectly caused by it.

In May 1542, Copernicus' book "On the sides and angles of triangles, both flat and spherical" was published in Wittenberg, with detailed tables of sines and cosines attached. But the scientist did not live to see the time when the book "On the rotations of the celestial spheres" spread throughout the world. He was dying when friends brought him the first copy of his book, printed in one of the Nuremberg printing houses. Copernicus died on May 24, 1543. Church leaders did not immediately understand what a blow to religion the book of Copernicus deals. For some time, his work was freely distributed among scientists. Only when Copernicus had followers, his teaching was declared heresy, and the book was included in the "Index" of banned books. Only in 1835 did the pope exclude the book of Copernicus from it and thereby, as it were, acknowledge the existence of his teaching in the eyes of the church. In May 1542, Copernicus's book "On the sides and angles of triangles, both flat and spherical" was published in Wittenberg, with detailed tables attached. sines and cosines. But the scientist did not live to see the time when the book "On the rotations of the celestial spheres" spread throughout the world. He was dying when friends brought him the first copy of his book, printed in one of the Nuremberg printing houses. Copernicus died on May 24, 1543. Church leaders did not immediately understand what a blow to religion the book of Copernicus deals. For some time, his work was freely distributed among scientists. Only when Copernicus had followers, his teaching was declared heresy, and the book was included in the "Index" of banned books. Only in 1835 did the pope exclude the book of Copernicus from it and thereby, as it were, acknowledge the existence of his teaching in the eyes of the church.