What is an archaeologist definition briefly. Archeology. Is it possible to get a job abroad

Archaeologist - a scientist who studies the past of mankind from material sources, is engaged in archeology (from archeo (archios) - ancient and from Greek lygos - word, doctrine).

Archeology is a historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources.

Material sources are the instruments of production and the material goods created with their help: buildings, weapons, jewelry, utensils, works of art - everything that is the result of human labor activity. Material sources, unlike written ones, do not contain a direct account of historical events, and the historical conclusions based on them are the result of scientific reconstruction. The significant originality of material sources necessitated their study by archaeologists who excavate archaeological sites, investigate and publish findings and results of excavations, and restore the historical past of mankind using these data. Archeology is of particular importance for the study of eras when there was no written language at all, or the history of those peoples who did not have written language even in later historical times.

A scientist-archaeologist can study the remains of sunken ships at the bottom of the sea (marine archeology), dig up and examine everything that remains of human settlements of past centuries (field archeology) or, using special materials and techniques, try to reconstruct things of past times, recreating them literally according to grains (experimental archeology).

The profession of an archaeologist is often compared to the work of a surgeon - both there and there, one wrong move with a knife can lead to the death of a patient.

Of course, in most cases, "hunters of antiquities" do not wield a knife, but a shovel, a shovel, a spoon, and even an ordinary toothbrush. Well, you can’t do without the notorious brushes for cleaning the found values.

In addition to the deepest knowledge in the field of history, a professional archaeologist must have the skills of drawing, drafting, be able to photograph, be sure to know the basics of restoration and conservation of various objects made of stone, clay, metal, wood, leather, fabric, bone, and so on. Without special knowledge in ethnography, anthropology, topography, geodesy, geology, without a firm grasp of information on auxiliary historical disciplines such as heraldry, sphragistics, numismatics, textology, an archaeologist cannot take place as a specialist.

For the successful implementation of activities, the exchange of information with colleagues is necessary. Usually professional communication occurs directly.

Life on the expedition is scheduled very clearly: at 7 am, the general rise (and the breakfast attendants should get up even earlier), work throughout the entire hour of the day with small breaks for food and sometimes for swimming, lights out at 11 pm.

Personal qualities

Willingness to work hard

Accuracy,

Excerpt,

Patience,

Responsibility,

Punctuality,

purposefulness,

passion,

The ability to abstract

Love for history.

A professional archaeologist must have a higher education.

Medical contraindications

heart disease or blood pressure disorders;

Convulsions, loss of consciousness;

Hearing disorders;

Speech disorders;

Chronic infectious diseases;

Diabetes;

hemorrhoidal disorders;

skin diseases;

Decreased visual acuity.

Archeology (from the Greek "arhaios" - ancient and "logos" - word, doctrine) is a science that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources, that is, objects preserved from ancient cultures. These include tools, weapons, buildings, jewelry, dishes, works of art - everything that is made by human hands.

Material sources, unlike written ones, do not contain direct information about historical events; therefore, historical conclusions from them can only be obtained through scientific reconstruction. For example, while exploring a Neolithic site, archaeologists find flint tools, bone jewelry, fix the location of earthen dwellings in a Neolithic settlement, the nature of burials - all this gives them the opportunity to recreate the lifestyle, everyday life and the nature of social relationships between members of the Neolithic community.

Archeology is very important for studying the eras that preceded the appearance of writing. By tracing changes in tool and weapon production technologies, the evolution of jewelry styles, and comparing unique types of objects with specific geographical areas, archaeologists reconstruct the historical processes of tribal migrations that cannot be reconstructed in other ways.

Many written sources became known only thanks to archeology - for example, ancient Egyptian papyri, Novgorod birch bark letters.

Archeology is also important for the eras when writing existed, for the study of ancient and medieval history, because. information drawn from the study of material sources significantly supplements the data of written sources. As a rule, contemporaries do not consider it important to record the signs and monuments of their era that are common to their understanding, such as the form of clothing, everyday life, preferring to preserve the memory of what seemed to them more important - political changes, disasters, wars. However, without these everyday details, today we would be deprived of the opportunity to imagine the life of past eras as it was. Sometimes this can lead to critical errors - their example is the Russian historical painting of the 19th century, depicting ancient Russian princes in the robes and armor of ancient Greece, which practically nullifies their artistic value for modern perception.

Archeology is constantly evolving. Today, archaeologists are armed with methods of radiocarbon and isotope analysis, which make it possible to more and more accurately determine the age of the find. New methods of conservation of finds make it possible to preserve for posterity things that a few years ago would have been irretrievably lost due to corrosion or due to their fragility. Metallography allows you to determine the composition and origin of the metal from which objects are made, down to the geographical region. New horizons are opened for archaeologists by the study of DNA preserved in the bone remains of ancient people and animals.

Perhaps someday, archaeologists, armed with increasingly powerful scientific methods and research technologies, will be able to completely reconstruct the history of mankind in its entirety - from the Paleolithic to modern times, when the abundance of written sources makes archaeological methods unnecessary. But the written history of mankind is related to the pre-literate in much the same way as the tip of the iceberg is to its underwater part.

History of the term "archaeology"

The word "archeology" was first used by Plato in the sense of "the history of past times." After Plato, the famous ancient historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus uses the term "archeology" in the title of one of his works. In the preface to it, Dionysius defines the tasks and subject of Archeology as follows: “I begin my history with the most ancient legends, which my predecessors skipped because it was very difficult for them to find them. I am leading my story up to the beginning of the first Punic War, which happened in the third year of the 128th Olympiad. I am speaking in the same way about all the wars and civil strife that the Roman people waged. I also report on all forms of government and government that the state had under the kings and after the abolition of the monarchy. I cite a large collection of manners and customs and the most famous laws and present in a brief overview the entire old state life.

The Romans acquired a new word for ancient history, Antiquitates (Cic. Acad. I, 2: Plin. H. N. I, 19; Gell. V, 13; XI, 1). Terentius Varro titled his work De rebus humanis et divinis with this new term.

Of the Christian authors of Antiquitates, Blessed Augustine (De Civit. Dei. VI.3) and Blessed Jerome (adv. Iovin. II.13) are used in the same sense. Since the sixteenth century, both expressions have taken on a more definite meaning and have been used to denote the life and state of past times, as opposed to history, which studies the deeds of the past.

An archaeologist is a historian who studies the life and culture of ancient people using various artifacts.

From Greek. archaios - ancient and logos - teaching. The profession is suitable for those who are interested in history, world art culture, foreign languages ​​and social studies (see the choice of profession for interest in school subjects).

Archaeologist is a historian who studies the life and culture of ancient people using various artifacts.

Archeology is an applied part of history, along with source study.

Features of the profession

Artifact in archeology (from lat. artefactum- artificially made) is an object created or processed by a person.
Artifacts are also called material sources. These include buildings, tools, household utensils, jewelry, weapons, the coals of an ancient fire, bones that have traces of human impact, and other evidence of human activity.
If the artifacts have writing, they are called written sources.

Material sources (unlike written ones) are silent. They contain no mention of historical events, and many were created long before the advent of writing. The task of an archaeologist is to create a picture of the past based on the found fragments, relying on existing knowledge and findings, taking into account the location of the finds. By itself, a fragment of a jug or a knife handle says little. They cannot be considered out of context, i.e. in isolation of the place, situation, depth of occurrence, objects found in the neighborhood, etc.
The archaeologist looks for evidence of the past, and then examines it in the laboratory, classifies it, restores it if necessary, and so on.

Archeology uses data and techniques from other disciplines:

humanitarian (ethnography, anthropology, linguistics) and natural (physics, chemistry, botany, geography, soil science).
For example, in order to establish the time of creation or use of an object, they take into account which layer it lay in (each soil layer corresponds to a certain time period), use stratigraphic, comparative typological, radiocarbon, dendrochronological, and other methods.

The archaeologist has no right to fantasies. All his conclusions must be described on clear evidence.

Archaeologists usually specialize in certain regions and historical periods. For example, a scientist can become an expert on the Paleolithic era in Central Asia if he studies the Stone Age sites located there year after year.

By search methods archeology can be divided into types:
Field - search for artifacts with the help of excavations on land;
Underwater - search under water;
experimental- reconstruction of objects of the past (tools, weapons, etc.).

During field excavations, an archaeologist uses a pickaxe and a shovel, a magnifying glass and a brush, a knife and a douche. As well as ground penetrating radar, theodolite - when planning excavations, a camera - for documenting their findings, and other technical capabilities.

To work underwater, you also need to be able to scuba dive and use underwater excavation equipment.

Even during the expedition, the archaeologist needs to describe each discovered object in as much detail as possible - this is important for further analysis. For the same purposes, you need to be able to sketch the find, take a picture. And in some cases, right in the field, scientists carry out the primary restoration (conservation) of an artifact, because sunlight and fresh air can destroy an ornament that has lain in the ground for a thousand years. If it is not strengthened in time, it will crumble before reaching the laboratory.

In experimental archeology, the reconstruction of an object takes place using materials and technologies typical of the era under study. During the experiment, scientists are trying to repeat the way of life of people of antiquity. They master crafts and restore forgotten technologies. Recreating an unknown technology, an archaeologist relies on excavation data, builds hypotheses, and conducts experiments. Here you can not do without engineering skills.

By invitation only
The work of an archaeologist is not only intense intellectual work. It requires physical strength and asceticism. Male archaeologists are often bearded, because on expeditions - in heat and dust, far from civilization - shaving is not recommended.
But for a real archaeologist, archaeological finds are a source of very strong emotions.
Archaeologist Natalya Viktorovna Polosmak speaks of his first archaeological experience:
“When I picked up my first small finds /…/ I saw that very close, literally under our feet, the mysterious world of the past exists and lives according to its own laws. And if the era of great geographical discoveries is already over, then great historical discoveries are still waiting for us, because the Earth has preserved everything that man has left on it from century to century.”
(N.V. Polosmak is a doctor of historical sciences, a specialist in the field of archeology and ancient history of Siberia. She participated in archaeological expeditions as a schoolgirl.)

According to the archaeologist Sergei Vasilyevich Beletsky, the finds are often perceived as alive: “That is, when you realize that this thing was kept before you for 100, 300, 500, 700 years, yes, this is serious.”
(S.V. Beletsky - Doctor of Historical Sciences. The main circle of scientific interests is the archeology of Pskov.)

Workplace

An archaeologist can work in research institutes (for example, at the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences), as well as teach at universities. His academic career, like that of other scientists, is expressed primarily in scientific discoveries, written works and academic titles.

Important qualities

In addition to interest in the events of the past, the archaeologist needs analytical, deductive abilities. To get a unified picture, one has to compare a lot of disparate data provided by excavations, laboratory studies, and the works of colleagues.
It does not matter where the excavations take place - under water or on land. In any case, it requires good physical endurance, sharp eyesight.

Knowledge and skills

Historical knowledge is necessary, especially knowledge of the era under study, knowledge in related fields: scientific restoration, paleosolology, paleogeography, etc.
Often you have to study disciplines that are not directly related to archeology: anthropology, ethnography, heraldry, numismatics, textual criticism, heraldry, physics, chemistry, statistics.
In addition, it is necessary to have the skills of a surveyor, topographer.
And when working in the mountains or under water - the skills of a climber or diver. For this you have to undergo special training.

The documented chronicles that have survived to our time are not enough to get a clear idea of ​​the events, life, and culture of the past. An archaeologist is a historian who is called upon to fill existing gaps through excavation. To work in this area, it is recommended to have good health, extensive knowledge in a number of compulsory disciplines, and specific personal qualities. In practice, archeology is not as simple and romantic as it seems to many. But this is a necessary, useful, interesting profession that allows you to get a lot of important information about the past of mankind.

People who have chosen the profession of an archaeologist are engaged in the search, study, restoration and documentation of artifacts. This is the collective name for material sources of historical knowledge created or processed by man. This impressive list includes household items, buildings, weapons, tools, money and even bones. A separate group includes written sources - products with inscriptions on the surface.

Types of archeology, their features:

• field - excavation of the remains of human settlements and the study of traces of their stay on land;
• underwater - the study of the remains of ships, cities that have gone under water, the rise of sunken artifacts;
• experimental - restoration of destroyed or very old things important for history by reconstructing using innovative techniques.

It is rare to find a general archaeologist. Usually, representatives of the profession have a narrow specialization with an emphasis on a specific time period, region, historical period, or even a specific country, nationality.

What personal qualities should an archaeologist have?

Effective work with artifacts requires the applicant for a position to have a number of basic, specialized, narrowly focused knowledge. Also, the profession of an archaeologist often involves certain difficulties, which not everyone is able to cope with.

Qualities an archaeologist should have:

• readiness to work in not the most comfortable conditions - often excavations are carried out far from civilization, where even with basic amenities there are problems;
• patience and the ability to do monotonous work for a long time - many historians' day "in the fields" consists of waving a shovel, brush or brush;
• sociability, the ability to get along well with others - it often takes months to excavate, during which you have to communicate with a narrow circle of people;
• focus on performing not only intellectual tasks, but also hard physical exercises - for many archaeologists, the working day consists of carrying weights, being in an uncomfortable position;
• dedication to one's work, readiness to constantly learn - if these qualities are not present, then the difficulties associated with the direction will quickly block all its positive aspects;
• the ability to notice little things, analyze them, draw conclusions from not the most obvious signs;
• the ability to compare a lot of different data, to operate with large amounts of information, to make quick decisions;
• accuracy, pedantry - most of the artifacts are in a vulnerable position in front of a person. Any careless movement can destroy the historical heritage;
• lack of imagination or the ability to restrain it - archaeologists work only with obvious things. They must be able to abstract from theory, drawing conclusions only on proven facts.

A field or underwater archaeologist needs good physical fitness and stamina. Representatives of the profession often have to work in adverse conditions, with critical indicators of temperature and humidity, and the absence of basic amenities. Doctors identify a number of medical contraindications for applicants for the specialty: heart disease, blood pressure drops, convulsions, hearing or speech problems, diabetes mellitus, blood disorders, dermatitis, chronic infections. It is also necessary that there are no allergic reactions to various irritants - from dust or insect bites to chemical reagents.

Where to study archaeology

Contrary to popular belief, to start working in a specialty, it is not enough to get to the excavations as an assistant or worker. To become an archaeologist, you need to get an academic education in the profile. Most major cities have universities with history departments. It is better to initially choose the department of archeology, then during the mandatory practical trips the student will have a chance to assess the specifics of the chosen direction.

Each university itself determines which USE exams are taken into account for admission. Most often it is the Russian language, social studies, history. Sometimes you need to take additional disciplines at the discretion of the faculty and in accordance with its specifics. It can be drawing, computer science, biology, physics or chemistry. Such requirements arise from the need for the archaeologist to have a number of skills that he will need in the future for work.

A good archaeologist should be able to:

• draw, draw, make plans and diagrams, make sketches;
• manage photographic equipment;
• master the skills of conservation, preliminary processing, restoration of artifacts, based on their material;
• handle climber's or diver's equipment as needed.

Knowledge of history is not enough for successful work in archeology. An artifact seeker must be proficient in geology, geodesy, anthropology, ethnography, paleography, and a number of related disciplines. Knowledge of physics, chemistry, textual criticism, numismatics, heraldry and other areas is required.

True professionals never stop learning to be an archaeologist. After graduation, they study the works of their colleagues, attend seminars and conferences, expand the range of their theoretical knowledge and practical skills.

Where and how archaeologists work

Excavations are far from the only place of work for an artifact seeker. Active practical actions in the area of ​​possible presence of relics are considered more of a rarity than a system.

The functions of an archaeologist are not limited to clearing a piece of land in which there may be objects important for history. It all starts with the search for a suitable area according to historical sources, which involves a long painstaking work with papers.

After the artifact search zone is established, a group equipped with everything necessary leaves for the place. In addition to archaeologists, it includes workers, laboratory assistants, assistants, technologists, and other specialists. Usually their working day begins at sunrise, continues throughout the daylight hours, during which short breaks are made for rest. In some areas, you have to act very carefully, which is why some professionals spend hours almost jewelerly removing layers of earth from found objects.

Most of their working life, archaeologists work in offices, laboratories, libraries. They collect information, analyze it, compare facts. If necessary, specialists are engaged in the restoration of destroyed objects, their study using modern technical approaches. They spend no less time exchanging information with colleagues, documenting the data received.

Salary of an archaeologist in Russia

The income of scientists depends on the place of their work, the availability of a scientific degree, type of activity, degree of activity. On average, the salary of a candidate of sciences is 30-40 thousand rubles. The holder of a scientific degree can count on 50-60 thousand rubles. The salary of an archaeologist can be significantly increased if he has weight in the scientific community, is engaged in writing articles or publishing books. Professionals with a well-known name in their field are often invited to lecture, to act as a consultant on film sets, to act as a censor of educational or popular science literature. Abroad, an archaeologist often receives an order of magnitude more, but in other countries there are enough of their own specialists, so only a few manage to find a place somewhere.

Benefits of being an archaeologist

Archeology is an interesting science that attracts hundreds of thousands of people with the mere chance to participate in unraveling the mysteries of history. Her admirers see many more advantages in the profession of an archaeologist, but they are all subjective. Scientists have a chance to find something significant, to make a discovery, to go down in history themselves. Every year, interest in the destination is growing more and more, interesting state programs for financing trips appear. A professional with a vast store of knowledge has many ways to make good money on archeology - articles, seminars, lectures, books, television programs.

Increasingly, non-state structures are becoming interested in conducting research. For savvy and ambitious artefact seekers, there is a chance to do private excavations in various climatic conditions. Archeology requires constant development from the scientist, does not allow him to relax, encourages him to acquire fresh knowledge and master new skills.

Disadvantages of being an archaeologist

Today, Russian archeology is not in a decadent state, as it was half a century ago, but it is still not considered an advanced field in science. History faculties graduate thousands of young professionals who often experience difficulty finding employment. The salary of inexperienced personnel may initially be so low that it does not satisfy basic needs. Beginning archaeologists have to spend a lot of time to prove themselves in the direction - after 4 years of bachelor's degree, 2 years of master's degree and 3 years of postgraduate study, at least 5 years of experience is required. Only after that it is advisable to start writing articles or books, try to get a job in an international group.

Some archaeologists point to the difficulty of combining profession with personal life. This is especially true for women who dream of having children. True, there are options for working without frequent business trips. Not every time the excavations are successful, which can undermine the morale. Travel conditions are often not very comfortable, which many modern people cannot cope with. Only a few manage to make a bright career in archeology with the resulting financial well-being.

The profession of an archaeologist is not a 100% chance to make money and achieve fame. Representatives of the direction consider it a vocation for those who are in love with science, long for romance, and are not afraid of hard work and possible disappointments.

Archeology: science and society

Public perceptions of archeology and archaeologists could be the subject of a special study. Until recently, an archaeologist was presented to the public as a kind of obsessed scientist eccentric - here one can also recall Fedya from the Song of the Students of Archaeologists by V. Vysotsky, who "searched for ancient buildings with a frenzy"; and Professor Maltsev with the golden helmet of Alexander the Great from L. Gaidai's film "Gentlemen of Fortune"; and even continuing this associative series of images of archaeologists, used quite recently in television commercials for washing powder (“Look what antiquity!”) And beer (“Mentally dug today!”).

In Western popular culture, an archaeologist, as a rule, turns out to be a character in an exciting detective or adventure story, whether it's Indiana Jones from S. Spielberg's film series or Lara Croft's "tomb raider" from S. West's action movie. The archaeologist in these and similar films is a detective who sets himself the goal of finding a certain object with supernatural properties before representatives of some evil forces do it. It is obvious that such a view of archeology has nothing to do with reality. Moreover, in essence, such films and games turn out to be “a powerful advertisement of treasure hunting as a new sport” (Makarov 2004: 4) and form false ideas about the goals and objectives of professional archaeological research.

Archaeologists themselves have become involved in public relations only recently. Perhaps only in the 1990s. Archaeological organizations have significantly stepped up their efforts to clarify the goals, objectives and nature of their activities and have become more actively promoting the social significance of studying and preserving the archaeological heritage. It should be noted here the Russian educational project, designed specifically for the general public, and not professional archaeologists - "International Summer Cultural and Historical University" Staraya Ladoga "", held in St. Petersburg and Staraya Ladoga in 2004-2006. (Kirpichnikov 2004). The participants of this summer school had a unique opportunity to take part in archaeological excavations, as well as listen to lectures by famous scientists on the history and archeology of Russia.

What social function does archeology perform, or, more simply, why does society need it? A similar question was asked 15 years ago by the famous St. Petersburg archaeologist G.S. Lebedev: “What is the cultural function of archeology? Why does it retain its attractive power for new and new generations for decades, centuries? The point, apparently, is precisely in the fact that archeology has a unique cultural function: the materialization of historical time. Yes, we are exploring “archaeological sites”, that is, we are simply digging up old cemeteries and dumps. But in doing so, we are doing what the ancients called with respectful horror "Journey to the realm of the dead." By linking ancient things with the deposits of the earth in which they lie, and comprehending these connections, archeology creates a material and objective basis for subjective social self-consciousness ... That is why a society with a developed self-consciousness is experiencing a growing need for archeological data, for the objectification of historical time ”(Lebedev 1992: 450).

Indeed, it is thanks to the discoveries of archaeologists that we can fully feel the course of history, feel or, figuratively speaking, “see” time in specific ancient things and structures. The “visual” materialization of historical time in ancient things helps to overcome the gap in its perception, which the Russian philosopher N.A. wrote about. Berdyaev (1990: 57): “The past with its historical epochs is an eternal reality in which each of us, in the depth of his spiritual experience, overcomes the painful fragmentation of his being.” The same idea sounds in the work of the archaeologist M.E. Tkachuk (1996: 32-33): “We are faced with an unconscious desire to organize time not linearly (day, night, week, month, five-year plan, twelve years), but qualitatively, approach it value-wise, break it down into stages from the point of view of the “World Flood", "Creation of the World", or "Foundation of Rome". After all, not some abstract cultures move in time - values, ideas about good and evil, heroes and anti-heroes move.

In fact, the desire to materialize historical time is inherent in each of us to one degree or another. Modern functional things, filling the space, according to J. Baudrillard (1995: 61-63), "do not provide the fullness of time." Meanwhile, the ancient thing “is devoid of any way out into practice and is revealed to us solely in order to mean something. It is not non-functional or simply ‘decorative’, and within the framework of the system it has a very specific function: it denotes time.”

The above observations of the French sociologist refer to his study of the world of things in the modern consumer society. However, similar considerations can be “projected” onto the social function of archeology, onto the place that it occupies in the public consciousness: just as ancient things show their historicity among modern things, “among home furnishings devoid of history” (Baudrillard 1995: 71 ), archeology enables society to “see” the material embodiment of a sense of historical time in the form of museum expositions, popular publications, public speeches by scientists, media reports on the activities of research institutions, etc.

Obviously, the described social function of archeology turns out to be one of the most important factors in the formation of national self-consciousness. The study of antiquities turns out to be a kind of catalyst for this process. This circumstance has been repeatedly recognized and clearly formulated by many political leaders. Speaking about the socio-political significance of the domestic archaeological heritage, it is necessary to especially note the unprecedented visits of the President of Russia V.V. Putin to the first capital of Russia, Staraya Ladoga, held in 2003 and 2004. During the visit of 2004 V.V. Putin not only took a direct personal part in the excavations of the remains of a 9th-century settlement, but also noted the social significance of archaeological research in general: facts” (cited in Kirpichnikov 2004: 9).

What place does archeology occupy in the modern system of historical sciences? How is the study of the historical past "distributed" among different scientific disciplines? Before turning to these main issues of this chapter, it is necessary to dwell in detail on how the modern meaning of the term "archaeology" itself was formed.

The modern meaning of the term "archaeology" was formed relatively recently - in the 19th century, while the term itself appeared in the ancient era. The literal meaning of the ancient Greek word "arxaiologia" is the study of antiquity. It is generally accepted that this term was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in the dialogue “Hippias the Greater”, dating from the 380s. BC e. This dialogue is conducted on behalf of the philosopher Socrates and the famous Greek sophist Hippias of Elis; Hippias has been to Lacedaemon (Sparta) more than once, and Socrates asks him about this state and its inhabitants. In particular, Socrates asks what public speeches of Hippias especially pleased the Lacedaemonians? And Hippias answers: “About the genealogy of heroes and people, Socrates, about the settlement of colonies, about how cities were founded in the old days - in a word, they listen with particular pleasure to all the stories about the distant past (about archeology), so because of them and I myself had to study all this very carefully.

The term "archaeology" turned out to be in demand by ancient historical science. So, the Greek historian of the 1st century. BC e. Diodorus Siculus, describing in his "Historical Library" the events preceding the Trojan War (about 1200 BC), used the phrase "Hellenic archaeology". In 7 BC. e. the historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote a work entitled "Roman Archeology", in which he examined the history of Rome from ancient times to the First Punic War (264-241 BC). By the way, thanks to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the term "archeology" became familiar to the scribes of late Moscow Russia in the 1670s-1680s: in the anonymous "Preface to the historical book compiled by order of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich" "Dionysius Alikarnassus" is mentioned, who "at the beginning of archeology writes that the historian needs to be true ... ".

The Greek historian and geographer Strabo uses the term "archaeology" in his Geography, completed around 7 BC. e. Later in the I-II centuries. n. e. this term was claimed by the Jewish historian Flavius ​​Josephus and the Greek historian and philosopher of the 1st-2nd centuries. n. e. Plutarch. One of the works of Josephus Flavius ​​is called “Jewish archeology”. It was completed in the 90s. n. e. and represents the history of Judea from the creation of the world to the period of the reign of Emperor Nero - 54-68 years.

In the Latin tradition (both in ancient Rome and later in the Middle Ages), another term was used - antiquitates (antiquities), as well as antiquarius (antique, lover of antiquities). “Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divrnrum” (“Human and Divine antiquities”) was the name of the work of the scientist-encyclopedist of the 2nd-1st centuries that has not survived to our time. BC e. Mark Terentius Varro, dedicated to the history and culture of the Romans. In the Renaissance, the word "antiquarius" also denoted a lover of ancient material antiquities.

In 1767, Professor of the University of Göttingen H.G. Heine revived the Greek term by giving a course of lectures on "The Archeology of the Art of Antiquity, Mainly the Greeks and Romans". And in 1799-1800, in Nuremberg, a student of H.G. Heine I.F. Siebenkes published the first Handbook of Archeology in two volumes. Somewhat later, in 1809-1810. another student H.G. Heine I.F. Boulet gave a similar course of lectures "Archaeology and the history of fine arts" at the Imperial Moscow University. However, at that time only the history of ancient art was called this word. At the beginning of the XIX century. the term "archeology" is gaining popularity "to designate a special discipline that treats the material monuments of classical antiquity" (Zhebelev 1923a: 26).

The very first mention of the term "archeology" in Russia (after the 1670s-1680s) apparently dates back to 1803 and is found in the "New Interpreter" of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Here "archeology" is explained simply as "description of antiquities". A few years later, in 1807, N.F. Koshansky publishes a Russian translation of the work of the French scientist O.L. Millen under the title "Guide to the knowledge of antiquities", in which at the very beginning the following definition is given: "Archaeology comprises the science of antiquities, that is, knowledge of the customs, rituals and monuments of the ancients that have come down to our times" (Milen 1807: 1). Both formulations are rather vague, however, archeology is not limited in them exclusively to ancient art. During the first half of the XIX century. the term "archeology" is beginning to be used in Russia more and more often, and in 1846 the first institution appeared in St. Petersburg, in the name of which it is present - the "Archaeological and Numismatic Society". The understanding of archeology as the science of precisely material antiquities was generally formed in the middle of the 19th century. and finally prevailed only at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

In Soviet Russia, starting from the turn of the 1920-1930s. and up to the end of the 1930s. the term "archaeology" was declared the name of an alien bourgeois science. In 1932 S.N. Bykovsky (1932: 3) wrote: “It can be considered definitively established that archeology in the old sense has become obsolete and cannot have supporters. This old understanding is connected with the anti-scientific division of the historical sciences according to the types of sources. The main feature of the specialty of an archaeologist was the work on material monuments. The old archaeologist is par excellence a historian in the full and bad sense of the word. He studied, as a rule, not social phenomena reflected in things, but things themselves. And two years earlier, the ideologist of the young Soviet archeology V.I. Ravdonikas (1930: 13) noted: “The narrowness and unsatisfactoriness of the old material archeology forced us to introduce a different name in Soviet times, “the history of material culture” ...”.

Indeed, in 1919, the “Russian Academy of the History of Material Culture” was established by decree of the Council of People’s Commissars (initially, the Deputy People’s Commissar of Education M.N. Pokrovsky proposed the name “Academy of Material Culture”, however, V.I. Lenin added the word “history "). Later, “the history of material culture” began to be perceived not just as a formal replacement for the term “archaeology” - they tried to give a new meaning to the new phrase: “Understanding the term“ material ”in a philosophical sense, the subject of the history of material culture will need to be recognized as the field of the history of material production, as well as conditions development of the latter. Such a science will have to deal primarily with the study of the material basis of society at various stages of development. (Bykovsky 1932: 4). However, since the mid-1930s the term "archeology" is gradually returning: since 1936, a series of scientific collections "Soviet archeology" has been published; in the same year, the Department of Archeology was created at the Faculty of History of Leningrad State University (its predecessor was called the "Department of the History of Pre-Class Society"), and in 1939 the Department of Archeology was opened at the Faculty of History of Moscow State University; Finally, in 1959, the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the USSR Academy of Sciences became the Institute of Archaeology.

“Archaeology is history armed with a shovel,” wrote Soviet archaeologist A.V. Artsikhovsky (1940: 3). Perhaps, neither before nor after this statement, which became a catchphrase, no one formulated the position of archeology in the system of historical disciplines so figuratively and, at the same time, unequivocally. However, the range of opinions about the relationship between archeology and history, of course, is not limited to this point of view and is determined, first of all, by ideas about what is the subject of archeology (that is, what archeology actually studies).

L.S. Klein (2004: 44-46) identifies three main positions of researchers on this issue. Supporters of the first consider archeology to be an exclusively source study discipline. Accordingly, the subject of archeology is limited only by its sources. Archeology, according to I.B. Rauza, "confines itself to identifying those material traces of humanity that have been preserved in the earth." "The aims of archeology are to obtain remains and to elucidate their nature" (Rouse 1972: 7). In Russian archeology, a consistent supporter of this point of view is G.P. Grigoriev (1973: 42), who defines the subject of this science as "the establishment of patterns in the development of fossil objects and the relationships between them." As a discipline of source study characterizes archeology and L.S. Klein.

The second position is reduced to the recognition of the historical process as such as an object of archeology. Archeology then turns out to be an auxiliary historical discipline "within" history itself, a "supplier" of illustrative materials for historians, so to speak. So, K. Randsborg, within the “comprehensive” history, singles out “traditional history based on a written text” and “history based on past material reality, in other words, archeology.” The main power and originality of archeology is manifested precisely in historical research (Randsborg 1997: 189, 194). The above point of view of A.V. Artsikhovsky can be compared with this position.

Finally, representatives of the third position unite in the subject of archeology both the sources themselves and the historical process reflected in them. That is, an archaeologist is regarded as an absolutely independent specialist who, if desired, can write his own "archaeological" history without regard to the developments of historians. Although, of course, no one is going to deliberately ignore the available historical data.

An example of such a position is presented in the "Introduction to Archeology" by Kh.D. Sankalia, according to which the subject of archeology includes both directly "the study of antiquities" and "the history of past events" (Sankalia 1965: 1). In Russian archeology, this point of view is presented in the works of Yu.N. Zakharuka (1978: 15): "Without the organic unity of archaeological source studies and the tasks of general historical research, there is no subject of archaeological science."

It should be noted that this grouping of views on the problem of the subject of archeology is not exhaustive. Such unexpected points of view as, for example, the position of M.V. Anikovich (1988: 96), according to which "archeology as a practical activity does not stand out as one special independent science". However, one way or another, all the positions described above are based on the specifics of archeology, determined by its sources - material antiquities (in other words, material remains). And it is precisely this circumstance that distinguishes archeology from history proper, the sources of which, as a rule, are written texts.

Written and material sources differ fundamentally in many respects. But their most important difference lies in the fact that the former are messages, while the latter are remnants: “Historical sources report on the historical past, reality is fixed in them, changing according to the ideas of the one who writes them ... Archaeological sources are not created intentionally. In archaeological sources, not reports of a past life have come down to us, but fragments of this life. (Grigoriev 1981: 5).

The presence or absence of written evidence is such a significant factor for the source base of historical research that it is precisely this that underlies the allocation of “prehistory” (in other words, “prehistory”, a term close in meaning is “history of primitive society”), defined as “the most ancient period of existence a person about whom there is no written data” (Vishnyatsky 2005: 14) and who precedes the actual “history”, already covered by written sources. Sometimes an intermediate “protohistory” is also distinguished, defined as a period in the life of mankind after the appearance of writing, but outside those areas where there are written sources. It is believed that the term "prehistory" was first used by the French researcher P. Tournal when he published it in the 1830s. finds made in the caves of southern France. In English literature, this term was first heard in 1851 in the title of D. Wilson's book Archeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.

“Writing,” says L.B. Vishnyatsky (2005: 14), is only a formal criterion for separating prehistory from history, but the essence of the differences between these two periods lies immeasurably deeper: in the nature of society, in the driving forces of the development of culture, and finally, in human psychology. However, such an understanding of writing as an exclusively formal feature seems to be incorrect in this case. The presence or absence of written sources largely determines our understanding of the period under study. The presence of written texts, in the first place, gives us extremely important information about the language in which they are written; in addition, as a rule, we find in these testimonies the names of the peoples who left them, and often the names of specific individuals. Finally, written news to some extent reflects the point of view, the worldview of its author. In material antiquities, all this is absent in principle. The archeology of prehistory is a wordless world of anonymous material remains.

Let us turn to the history of the formation of the basic archaeological periodization of the past of mankind - the "system of three centuries".

The assumption about the dominance of various materials in different eras of human history was expressed even in the works of ancient authors. So, even the ancient Greek poet of the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. Hesiod in his poem "Works and Days" wrote about the successive existence of five generations of people - gold, silver, copper, demigod heroes, and, finally, iron - modern Hesiod. In the II century. n. e. the Greek historian and geographer Pausanias included the following reasoning in his essay “Description of Hellas”: “And that in heroic times everything was copper in general, Homer is a witness of this, in those verses where he describes Pisandra’s ax (Iliad, XIII, 612) and spear of Merion (Iliad, XIII, 630). And, on the other hand, this is confirmed by the spear of Achilles, kept in Phaselis in the temple of Athena, and the sword of Memnon, located in Nicomedia in the temple of Asclepius; at the spear, the tip and the lower part are made of copper, and the sword is generally all copper. I have seen it and I know it is so.”

Ancient Roman poet and philosopher BC e. Titus Lucretius Carus in his poem "On the Nature of Things" singled out three periods (of stone, copper and iron) in the technological development of mankind, and "stones" meant, apparently, not tools made from this material, but stones as such. It is important to emphasize that the poem of Lucretius was well known in Renaissance and later Europe - its first edition took place as early as 1473.

The use of stone knives and the predominance of copper weapons, and the special value of iron products (probably due to their rarity at the time) are mentioned in the texts of the Bible. So, stone tools are mentioned, for example, in the Book of Joshua (5: 2-3) — “2. At that time the Lord said to Jesus: Make for yourself stone knives and circumcise the sons of Israel a second time. 3. And Jesus made for himself stone knives and circumcised the sons of Israel in a place called "Circumcision Hill." "Iron vessels" are mentioned among the special treasures brought "into the treasury of the house of the Lord" after the capture of Jericho by Joshua around 1400 BC. e.: “And the city and everything in it, they burned with fire; only silver, and gold, and vessels of brass and iron, they gave into the treasury of the house of the Lord” (Joshua 6:23). On the other hand, the predominance of copper objects is found in the description of the weapons of the Philistine warrior Goliath, who was killed by David in the reign of Saul (about 1030-1010 BC): “4. And out of the camp of the Philistines a combatant named Goliath, out of Gath, came out; He is six cubits and a span in height. 5. A copper helmet on his head; and he was clad in scale armor, and the weight of his armor was five thousand shekels of copper; 6. Copper kneecaps on his feet, and a copper shield behind his shoulders; 7. And the shaft of his spear is like a weaver's beam; and his spear itself was six hundred shekels of iron, and before him went a squire” (1 Samuel 17:4-7).

The judgments of ancient authors about the eras of the dominance of various materials in the history of mankind (taking into account the information presented in the Bible) were continued in the assumptions of French and Scandinavian scientists of the 18th - early 19th centuries. The development of the hypothesis of Titus Lucretius Cara was continued by a monk of the Order of St. Benedict of Nursia B. de Montfaucon, antiquarian N. Magudel, philosopher and historian A.-I. Goge and other researchers. In 1813, professor at the University of Copenhagen, historian L.Sh. Wedel-Simonsen expressed the following consideration: “The weapons and utensils of the most ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia were originally made of stone or wood. Later, these people began to use copper ... and only recently did iron appear. Therefore, from this point of view, the history of their civilization can be divided into the age of stone, the age of copper and the age of iron. These centuries were not separated from each other by such clear boundaries that they did not "overlap" each other. Undoubtedly, the poor continued to use stone utensils after the advent of copper implements, and copper implements after the appearance of analogues made of iron. However, despite such a clear and at the same time correct formulation of the system of three centuries, it has not yet been substantiated by factual material - archaeological finds. This was done somewhat later.

In 1807 in Denmark, with the aim of forming the National Museum of Antiquities, the “Royal Committee for the Preservation and Collection of National Antiquities” was established, the secretary of which was the director of the library of the University of Copenhagen R. Nirup. In 1816 he was replaced in this position by K.Yu. Thomsen, who at the same time was appointed "first curator" of the National Museum of Antiquities. Thomsen's main task was to organize the collections of ancient things for the museum display, and he classified them in such a way that they could demonstrate technological progress - he divided the archaeological finds into groups based on the materials from which they were made. In 1819, the National Museum of Antiquities, the exposition of which was built according to the described principle, was opened to the public, and in 1836 Thomsen published a Guide to Northern Antiquities, which reflected his classification. The result of this classification was the allocation of three periods in the technological development of the population of Northern Europe - stone, bronze and iron.

Thomsen noted that bronze things with a cutting blade (tools or weapons) are not found together with the same iron things; that with similar things from bronze there are decorations of one appearance, and from iron - of another, etc. Thus, Thomsen did not just classify individual things, he sought to classify the totality of finds - complexes of things. It is important to emphasize that Thomsen did not establish any absolute (calendar) dates, he showed only the sequence of changing periods in the development of tool production.

In the same (1830s) years, under the influence of Thomsen, in accordance with the system of three centuries, museum exhibitions were organized in Sweden - in the museums of Lund and Stockholm. In 1834, the three-century system was supported by the Swedish zoologist, professor at Lund University S. Nilsson in an essay on the emergence of hunting and fishing in Scandinavia, which was an introduction to a new edition of his work on the fauna of this peninsula. At the same time, the system of three centuries began to be used by scientists from northeastern Germany - G.K.F. Lish and I.F. Dunnail. Later, Thomsen's classification was confirmed by his student J.-J.A. Vorso in the monograph of 1842 "Danish antiquity based on the materials of ancient sagas and excavations of burial mounds".

At present, skeptical assessments of the system of three centuries are often heard. Thus, the authors of the Archaeological Dictionary, noting the “omission” of the Bronze Age in the development of some regions, believe that “the system is gradually becoming obsolete and will undoubtedly be replaced as soon as a better one is offered.” (Bray, Trump 1990: 250). However, despite the existence of such points of view, the basis of the system of three ages (the Age of Stone - the Age of Bronze - the Age of Iron) received in world archeology "the rank of universal archaeological periodization - global and comprehensive (general cultural)" (Klein 2000a: 495). The formation of this periodization in the XIX century. characterized as "a revolution in archeology, in its transformation from simple collecting into science" (Mongait 1973: 19) and it is the system of three centuries that is recognized as the world (panoicumene) archaeological periodization. The stages singled out “within” the “ages” already refer exclusively to regional periodizations. The system of three centuries is an archaeological "framework" of history (in the broad sense of the word, including the preliterate era), a tool that links the archaeological vision of the process of human development with historical reality.

The system of three centuries was not originally tied to absolute dates (that is, to the calendar time scale). However, it is assumed that it covers exactly the segment of history that archeology studies. And if the beginning of this segment, of course, refers to the appearance of man on Earth and the beginning of human activity, then its final date is not so obvious.

In 1851, members of the Imperial Archaeological Society in St. Petersburg decided: “to set the year 1700 as the extreme limit for the study of Russian antiquities. All the monuments that appeared after this time are not included in the circle of his activities. Today, the failure of this approach seems obvious. Archaeologists have been exploring objects much later than 1700 for a long time. It is curious that the first such attempts in Russia date back to the middle of the 19th century. — back in the 1830s. head of the archive of the Engineering Department, "Inspector General for the Engineering Department" A.L. Mayer sought to reveal the walls of the Winter Palace of the 1710s, in which Peter I died. However, A.L. Mayer did not excavate, but used only written and graphic documents in combination with natural observations. However, he formulated the need for such excavations quite clearly: “If the military glory of Russia quickly surpassed the glory of Greece and Rome, then sometimes just as soon the monuments of her great husbands were likened to the monuments of ancient heroes, with difficulty and slowly found in classical soil or under new buildings who erased the traces of those who once were in their place ”(Mayer 1872: 7). And already in 1853, in the course of research by F.G. Solntsev, “the corner living room of the lower floor of the palace of Peter I” was revealed (Mikhailov 1988: 244). However, a century later, when A.D. Grach conducted excavations on the territory of the spit of Vasilyevsky Island in Leningrad in 1952, he, publishing the results of his research, had to explain the need for an archaeological study of the remains of the activities of the population of St. monuments of deep antiquity” (Grach 1957: 7-9). Today, a full-fledged archaeological study of St. Petersburg during all three centuries of its existence is a recognized area of ​​research. “Petersburg,” writes G.S. Lebedev (1996: 15), preserves very valuable objects of a specific household culture, from the “Swedish pipes” of the Great Northern War of 1700-1721 to the household items of the Leningrad Siege of 1941-1944 that become relics.”

Some archaeologists, without giving any absolute (calendar) dates, believe that “archeology begins when living memory ends” (Daniel 1962: 5) and point to the “forgetting factor” (Klein 1978a: 58) that determines the final limit of the chronological the interval relating to the object of archeology - the "historical past" according to S.A. Zhebelev (1923b: 4). It is difficult to agree with this. Probably the most striking example of the full use of the methodology of archaeological excavations to study the events of the recent past is the study of the heroic defense in May-October 1942 of the Central Adzhimushkay quarries near Kerch by the Soviet garrison under the command of Colonel P.M. Yagunov. The first surveys here were carried out in 1972 at the initiative of the Kerch Historical and Archaeological Museum and the journal Vokrug Sveta (Ryabikin 1972: 17-23), subsequently they were continued in the 1980s-1990s. least scientific research, accompanied by continuous cleaning of large areas of adits and professional processing of the obtained materials. Obviously, the archaeological research of the Adzhimushkay quarries cannot in any way be correlated with the "forgetting factor" - they began only 30 years after the events of 1942, representatives of generations of witnesses and participants in the Great Patriotic War and today are carriers of that very "living memory" of this time.

However, in the question of determining the end date of the segment of history studied by archaeology, the main thing, of course, is not how much more “later” an example of excavations can be given at the moment. In the end, we can “stop” on the study of the modern household waste of a North American city, undertaken as an experiment by a group of researchers at the University of Arizona led by William Ratji in the 1970s. According to W. Ratji, “the application of archaeological methods to the study of our society can contribute to a deeper understanding of society itself” (Renfrew 1985: 8). That is, the study of modern garbage in this case is not just some exotic option for a practical lesson for students, but is clearly recognized as a possible (although not in demand) way to study modern culture. It is curious to note that, characterizing the system of three ages, archaeologists often assert that "the Iron Age continues even now" (Amalrik, Mongait 1966: 52). That is, modernity is included in the chronological framework of the universal archaeological periodization!

Perhaps it should be recognized that archeology is, first and foremost, "a craft, a set of techniques" (Daniel 1969: 86).

It is no coincidence that an archaeologist is often compared to a detective. G. Clark was the first to do this, according to whom the archaeologist “resembles a forensic scientist. He must be sure of circumstantial evidence, and most of his time is spent on details that may seem trivial, despite being of extraordinary interest as traces of human actions” (Clark 1939: 1).

The demand for this "forensic" method for the study of different historical eras is determined by various factors. The example of the Adzhimushkay quarries convincingly shows that even when studying recent history, “due to specific historical reasons, it may turn out that the only primary or inevitable means of obtaining information about any event will be archaeological research” (Boryaz 1975: 11). And the fact that excavations of the remains of human activity of the XX century. occur much less frequently than, for example, archaeological studies of Stone Age settlements, due to the informational uniqueness of prehistoric material remains and, most importantly, the traditional perception of archeology as a science of antiquities.