Means of expression and their meaning. Means of language expressiveness. Tropes in Russian
The figurative and expressive language means of fiction include:
Epithet- artistic and figurative definition of any object or phenomenon.
Example: sadness "ineffable" eyes - "huge" May - "solar", fingers - "the thinnest"(O. Mandelstam "Inexpressible sadness...")
Hyperbola- artistic exaggeration.
Example: The earth was shaking— like our breasts; Mixed up in a bunch of horses, people, And volleys thousands of guns Merged into a long howl ... (M.Yu. Lermontov "Borodino")
Litotes- artistic understatement ("reverse hyperbole").
Example: "The youngest son was as tall as a finger..."(A.A. Akhmatova. "Lullaby").
trails- words or phrases used not in a direct, but in a figurative sense. The paths include allegory, allusion, metaphor, metonymy, personification, paraphrase, symbol, symphora, synecdoche, simile, euphemism.
Allegory- allegory, the image of an abstract idea through a specific, clearly represented image. The allegory is unambiguous and directly points to a strictly defined concept.
Example: fox- cunning, wolf- cruelty donkey - stupidity (in fables); gloomy Albion- England (A. S. Pushkin "When you squeeze your hand again ...").
allusion- one of the tropes, which consists in using a transparent allusion to some well-known everyday, literary or historical fact instead of mentioning this fact itself.
Example: A. S. Pushkin's mention of the Patriotic War of 1812:
For what? answer: whether
What's on the ruins of burning Moscow
We did not recognize impudent will
The one under whom you trembled?
("To the slanderers of Russia")
Metaphor- this is a hidden comparison based on some features common to the compared, compared objects or phenomena.
Example: The east burns with a new dawn(A. S. Pushkin "Poltava").
personification- endowing objects and phenomena of non-living nature with the features of a living being (most often a person).
Example: “The night thickened, flew nearby, grabbed the galloping cloaks and, tearing them off their shoulders, exposed the deceptions(M. A. Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita").
Metonymy- a poetic trope, consisting in the replacement of one word or concept with another that has a causal relationship with the first.
Example: There is a Museum of Ethnography in this city
Over the wide, like the Nile, the high-water Neva,
(N. S. Gumilyov "Abyssinia")
Synecdoche- one of the paths, which is built on the ratios of quantity; more instead of less, or vice versa.
Example: Say: will we soon Warsaw Will the proud prescribe his law? (A. S. Pushkin "Borodino anniversary")
paraphrase- a trope, which is based on the principle of expanded metonymy and consists in replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive turn of speech, which indicates the signs of an object not directly named.
Example: in A. A. Akhmatova’s poem “A swarthy youth wandered along the alleys ...”, A. S. Pushkin himself is depicted with the help of a paraphrase:
Here lay his cocked hat And the disheveled volume of Guys.
Euphemism- replacement of a rude, indecent or intimate word or statement with others that transparently hint at the true meaning (in stylistic organization close to a paraphrase).
Example: woman in an interesting position instead of pregnant recovered instead of fat, borrowed stole something together, etc.
Symbol- a hidden comparison, in which the compared object is not called, but is implied with a certain share
variability (polysemy). The symbol only points to some kind of reality, but is not compared with it unambiguously and directly, this contains the fundamental difference between the symbol and the metaphor, with which it is often confused.
Example: I'm just a cloud full of fire(K. D. Balmont “I do not know wisdom”). The only point of contact between the poet and the cloud is "fleeting".
Anaphora (unity)- this is the repetition of similar sounds, words, syntactic and rhythmic repetitions at the beginning of adjacent verses, stanzas (in poetic works) or closely spaced phrases in a paragraph or at the beginning of adjacent paragraphs (in prose).
Example: Kohl love, so without reason, Kohl threaten, so not a joke, Kohl scold, so rashly, Kohl chop, so off the shoulder! (A. K. Tolstoy “If you love, then without reason ...”)
polyunion- such a construction of a stanza, episode, verse, paragraph, when all the main logically significant phrases (segments) included in it are connected by the same union:
Example: And the wind, and the rain, and the haze
Above the cold desert water. (I. A. Bunin "Loneliness")
gradation- gradual, consistent strengthening or weakening of images, comparisons, epithets and other means of artistic expression.
Example: No one will give us deliverance, Not a god, not a king, not a hero...
(E. Pottier "International")
Oxymoron (or oxymoron)- a contrasting combination of opposite words in order to create a poetic effect.
Example: "I love magnificent nature withering..."(A. S. Pushkin "Autumn").
Alliteration- a sound recording technique that gives lines of verse or parts of prose a special sound by repeating certain consonant sounds.
Example: “Katya, Katya, they carve horseshoes for me at a gallop ...”. In I. Selvinsky’s poem “Black-eyed Cossack”, the repetition of the sound “k” imitates the clatter of hooves.
Antiphrasis- the use of a word or expression in a sense opposite to their semantics, most often ironic.
Example: ...he sang faded life color"Without little at eighteen. (A. S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin")
Stylization- this is a technique that consists in the fact that the author deliberately imitates the style, manner, poetics of some other famous work or group of works.
Example: in the poem "Tsarskoye Selo Statue" A. S. Pushkin resorts to stylization of ancient poetry:
Having dropped the urn with water, the maiden broke it on the rock. The maiden sits sadly, idle holding a shard. Miracle! water does not dry up, pouring out from a broken urn, the Virgin sits forever sadly above the eternal stream.
Anthology- the use in the work of words and expressions in their direct, immediate, everyday meaning. This is neutral, "prosaic" speech.
Example: Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet a Servant who brings me a cup of tea in the morning, Questions: is it warm? has the blizzard subsided? (A. S. Pushkin "Winter. What should we do in the village? ..")
Antithesis- artistic opposition of images, concepts, positions, situations, etc.
Example: here is a fragment of the historical song "Choice of Yer-mak as ataman":
Not clear falcons flocked - Gathered, congregated Good fellows...
TRACKS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.
TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or turns of speech in a figurative, allegorical sense. Trails are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, etc.
STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of the statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.
HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a kind of trail based on exaggeration ("rivers of blood", "sea of laughter"). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in the ancient epic among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin, and especially
V. Mayakovsky ("I", "Napoleon", "150,000,000"). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personifications, comparisons, etc.). The opposite - litotes.
LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; figurative expression, turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. There is a litote in folk tales: "a boy with a finger", "a hut on chicken legs", "a peasant with a fingernail".
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litote hyperbola.
N. Gogol often addressed the litote:
“Such a small mouth that it cannot miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol
METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - trope, hidden figurative comparison, transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common features (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “stone heart” ...). In metaphor, unlike
comparisons, the words "as", "as if", "as if" are omitted, but implied.
Nineteenth century, iron,
Truly a cruel age!
You in the darkness of the night, starless
Careless abandoned man!
A. Blok
Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification ("water runs"), reification ("nerves of steel"), distraction ("field of activity"), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:
In every carnation fragrant lilac,
Singing, a bee crawls in ...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...
A. Fet
The metaphor is an undivided comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:
With a sheaf of their oatmeal hair
You touched me forever...
The eyes of a dog rolled
Golden stars in the snow...
S. Yesenin
In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widely used in art:
Ah, my bush withered my head,
Sucked me song captivity
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turn the millstones of poems.
S. Yesenin
Sometimes the entire work is a broad, detailed metaphorical image.
METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - tropes; replacing one word or expression with another based on the proximity of meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "forest noise" - trees are meant; etc.).
The theater is already full, the boxes are shining;
Parterre and chairs, everything is in full swing ...
A.S. Pushkin
In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted with the help of other words and concepts. At the same time, signs or connections that bring these phenomena together remain; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of "a steel speaker dozing in a holster," the reader easily guesses in this image the metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:
You led swords to a plentiful feast;
Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe perished; grave dream
Worn over her head...
A. Pushkin
When is the shore of hell
Forever will take me
When forever fall asleep
Feather, my consolation...
A. Pushkin
PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its features, as a rule, the most characteristic, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. ("king of birds" instead of "eagle", "king of beasts" - instead of "lion")
PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a kind of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays ...).
my bells,
Steppe flowers!
What are you looking at me
Dark blue?
And what are you talking about
On a happy May day,
Among the uncut grass
Shaking your head?
A.K. Tolstoy
SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche are:
1) Part of the phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:
And at the door
jackets,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...
V. Mayakovsky
2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:
Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet?
Well, isn't it a vile parod!
3) Singular in the meaning of general and even universal:
There a man groans from slavery and chains...
M. Lermontov
And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn ...
A. Pushkin
4) Replacing a number with a set:
Millions of you. Us - darkness, and darkness, and darkness.
A. Blok
5) Replacing a generic concept with a specific one:
We beat a penny. Very good!
V. Mayakovsky
6) Replacing a specific concept with a generic one:
"Well, sit down, luminary!"
V. Mayakovsky
COMPARISON - a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said how he cut off” ...). A storm covers the sky with mist,
Whirlwinds of snow twisting;
The way the beast she howls
He will cry like a child...
A.S. Pushkin
"Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory's life became black" (M. Sholokhov). The idea of the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that dreary and painful feeling that corresponds to the state of Gregory. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - "scorched steppe" to another - the internal state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:
The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Exciting only a silver feather grass,
Wandering flying aquilon
And before him freely drives the dust;
And where around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birches,
Which under the bluish haze
Blacken in the evening in the empty distance.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, distinguish
There are few things we can do in it, in the color of years
She will not cheer the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make immortal like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't what it means to rest.
M. Lermontov
Here, with the help of expanded S. Lermontov, he conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by unions "as", "as if", "as if", "exactly", etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
"Do I have curls - combed linen" N. Nekrasov. Here the union is omitted. But sometimes it's not meant to be:
"Tomorrow is the execution, the usual feast for the people" A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are built descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:
And she is
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Fresh morning roses.
A. Pushkin
She is sweet - I will say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And you can with southern stars
Compare, especially in verse,
Her Circassian eyes.
A. Pushkin
A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:
The red sun does not shine in the sky,
Blue clouds do not admire them:
Then at the meal he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.
M. Lermontov
In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is at the same time a way of comparing and a way of transferring meanings.
A special case is the forms of the instrumental case used in comparison:
It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards North Aurora
Be the star of the north.
A. Pushkin
I do not soar - I sit like an eagle.
A. Pushkin
Often there are comparisons in the accusative case with the preposition "under":
"Sergey Platonovich ... sat with Atepin in the dining room, pasted over with expensive, oak-like wallpaper ..."
M. Sholokhov.
IMAGE -a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.
It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains,
Frost - warlord patrol
Bypasses his possessions.
ON THE. Nekrasov
ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a concrete image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images date back to Greek and Roman mythology. So, the image of a woman blindfolded and with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.
Unlike a metaphor, in an allegory, the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).
GROTESQUE (French grotesque - bizarre, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.
Enraged at the meeting, I burst into an avalanche,
Spouting wild curses dear.
And I see: half of the people are sitting.
O devilry! Where is the other half?
V. Mayakovsky
IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - an expression of mockery or slyness through allegory. A word or statement acquires in the context of speech a meaning that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, calling it into question.
Servant of powerful masters,
With what noble courage
Thunder with speech you are free
All those who had their mouths shut.
F.I. Tyutchev
SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tear meat) - contemptuous, caustic mockery; the highest degree of irony.
ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or respond) - repetition in a line, stanza or phrase of homogeneous vowel sounds.
Oh spring without end and without edge -
Endless and endless dream!
A. Blok
ALLITERATION (SOUND)(lat. ad - to, with and littera - letter) - the repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.
Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
Storm is near. Beats on the shore
A black boat alien to charms ...
K. Balmont
ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - a joke, a hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or a mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work ("the glory of Herostratus").
ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - pronouncement) - repetition of initial words, lines, stanzas or phrases.
You are poor
You are abundant
You are beaten
You are almighty
Mother Rus'!…
ON THE. Nekrasov
ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a pronounced opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blush, like a poppy color,
I am like death, and thin and pale.
A.S. Pushkin
You are poor
You are abundant
You are powerful
You are powerless...
N. Nekrasov
So few roads traveled, so many mistakes made...
S. Yesenin.
Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the whole work is built on the principle of antithesis
APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificial shortening of a word without losing its meaning.
... Suddenly, out of the forest
The bear opened its mouth on them ...
A.N. Krylov
Lay, laugh, sing, whistle and clap,
People's talk and horse top!
A.S. Pushkin
ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with no conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.
Night, street, lamp, pharmacy,
A meaningless and dim light.
Live at least a quarter of a century -
Everything will be like this. There is no exit.
A. Blok
POLYUNION(polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of unions, creating additional intonational coloring. The opposite figureunionlessness.
Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words, enhances its expressiveness:
And the waves are crowding, and rushing back,
And they come again, and hit the shore ...
M. Lermontov
And boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand to ...
M.Yu. Lermontov
GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - the increase or decrease in their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
S. Yesenin
INVERSION(lat. inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure, consisting in a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of the phrase gives it a peculiar expressive shade.
Traditions of antiquity deep
A.S. Pushkin
Doorman past he's an arrow
Flew up the marble steps
A. Pushkin
OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting, opposite in meaning words (a living corpse, a giant dwarf, the heat of cold numbers).
PARALLELISM(from the Greek. parallelos - walking side by side) - an identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.
Waves crash in the blue sea.
The stars are shining in the blue sky.
A. S. Pushkin
Your mind is as deep as the sea.
Your spirit is as high as mountains.
V. Bryusov
Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” N. A Nekrasov, "Vasily Terkin" by A. T, Tvardovsky).
Parallelism can have a broader thematic character in content, for example, in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov "The clouds of heaven are eternal wanderers."
Parallelism can be both verbal and figurative, as well as rhythmic, compositional.
PARCELLATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonational division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically identified as independent sentences. ("And again. Gulliver. Standing. Stooping" P. G. Antokolsky. "How courteous! Good! Mila! Simple!" Griboedov. "Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. Squinted."
N. Ilyina. “He had a fight with a girl. And that's why." G. Uspensky.)
TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a mismatch between the syntactic articulation of speech and articulation into verses. When transferring, the syntactic pause within a verse or half-line is stronger than at its end.
Peter comes out. His eyes
Shine. His face is terrible.
The movements are fast. He is beautiful,
He's all like God's thunderstorm.
A. S. Pushkin
RHYME(Greek "rhythmos" - harmony, proportionality) - variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a sense of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.
ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - loss, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of the sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech, a tense change of action is transmitted. Ellipsis is one of the default types. In artistic speech, it conveys the excitation of the speaker or the intensity of the action:
We sat down - in ashes, cities - in dust,
In swords - sickles and plows.
Figurative means of expressiveness of the language are artistic and speech phenomena that create the verbal figurativeness of the narrative: tropes, various forms of instrumentation and rhythmic-intonational organization of the text, figures.
In the center are examples of the use of figurative means of the Russian language.
Vocabulary
trails- a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense. The paths are based on an internal convergence, a comparison of two phenomena, one of which explains the other.
Metaphor- a hidden comparison of one object or phenomenon with another based on the similarity of features.
(p) “A horse is galloping, there is a lot of space,
It snows and lays a shawl"
Comparison- comparison of one object with another according to the principle of their similarity.
(p) “Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
It stands alone in the whole universe"
personification- a kind of metaphor, the transfer of human qualities to inanimate objects, phenomena, animals, endowing them with thoughts with speech.
(p) “Sleepy birches smiled,
Disheveled silk braids "
Hyperbola- an exaggeration.
(p) "Tears a yawning mouth wider than the Gulf of Mexico"
Metonymy- replacement of the direct name of an object or phenomenon with another one that has a causal relationship with the first.
(p) "Farewell, unwashed Russia,
The country of slaves, the country of masters ... "
paraphrase- similar to metonymy, often used as a characteristic.
(p) "Kisa, we will see the sky in diamonds" (get rich)
Irony- one of the ways of expressing the author's position, the skeptical, mocking attitude of the author to the depicted.
Allegory- the embodiment of an abstract concept, phenomenon or idea in a specific image.
(p) In Krylov's fable "Dragonfly" - an allegory of frivolity.
Litotes- an understatement.
(p) "... in big mittens, and himself with a fingernail!"
Sarcasm- a kind of comic, a way of displaying the author's position in a work, a caustic mockery.
(p) “I thank you for everything:
For the secret torment of passions... the poison of kisses...
For everything that I was deceived"
Grotesque- a combination of contrasting, fantastic with the real. Widely used for satirical purposes.
(p) In Bulgakov's novel The Master and Margarita, the author used the grotesque, where the funny is inseparable from the terrible, in a performance staged by Woland in a variety show.
Epithet- a figurative definition that emotionally characterizes an object or phenomenon.
(p) “The Rhine lay before us all silver…”
Oxymoron- a stylistic figure, a combination of opposite in meaning, contrasting words that create an unexpected image.
(p) "heat of cold numbers", "sweet poison", "Living corpse", "Dead souls".
Stylistic figures
Rhetorical exclamation- the construction of speech, in which one or another concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation, in a heightened emotional form.
(p) “Yes, this is just witchcraft!”
A rhetorical question- a question that does not require an answer.
(p) "What summer, what summer?"
Rhetorical address- an appeal that is conditional in nature, informing poetic speech of the desired intonation.
stanza ring- sound repetition located at the beginning and at the end of a given verbal unit - lines, stanzas, etc.
(p) "Affectionately closed the darkness"; " Thunder skies and guns thunder"
polyunion- such a construction of a sentence when all or almost all homogeneous members are interconnected by the same union
Asyndeton- omission of unions between homogeneous members, giving the worst. speech compactness, dynamism.
Ellipsis- an omission in the speech of some easily implied word, a member of a sentence.
Parallelism- concomitance of parallel phenomena, actions, parallelism.
Epiphora- repetition of a word or combination of words. Identical endings of adjacent poetic lines.
(p) “Baby, we are all a bit of a horse!
Each of us is a horse in his own way ... "
Anaphora- monotony, repetition of the same consonances, words, phrases at the beginning of several poetic lines or in a prose phrase.
(p) “If you love, then without reason,
If you threaten, it’s not a joke ... "
Inversion- a deliberate change in the order of words in a sentence, which gives the phrase a special expressiveness.
(p) “Not the wind, blowing from a height,
Sheets touched on a moonlit night ... "
gradation- the use of means of artistic expression, consistently reinforcing or weakening the image.
(p) “I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ...”
Antithesis- opposition.
(p) “They came together: water and stone,
Poetry and prose, ice and fire…”
Synecdoche- transfer of meaning based on the convergence of the part and the whole, the use of singular instead of pl.
(p) “And it was heard before dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced ...”
Assonance- repetition in verse of homogeneous vowel sounds,
(p) "A son grew up without a smile at night"
Alliteration- repetition or consonance of vowels
(p) "Where the grove whinnying guns whinnying"
Refrain- exactly repeated verses of the text (as a rule, its last lines)
Reminiscence - in a work of art (mainly poetic), individual features inspired by involuntary or deliberate borrowing of images or rhythmic-syntactic moves from another work (someone else's, sometimes one's own).
(p) "I have experienced many, many"
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Language means of expression are traditionally called rhetorical figures.
Rhetorical figures - such stylistic turns, the purpose of which is to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Rhetorical figures are designed to make the speech richer and brighter, which means to attract the attention of the reader or listener, arouse emotions in him, make him think. Many philologists have worked on the study of the means of expressiveness of speech, such as
Artistic speech is not a set of some special poetic words and phrases. The language of the people is considered to be the source of turnovers, therefore, in order to create "living pictures" and images, the writer resorts to using all kinds of riches of the folk language, to the subtlest shades of the native word.
Any word, except for the main, direct meaning, denoting the main feature of an object, phenomenon, action (storm, fast driving, hot snow), has a number of other meanings, that is, it is ambiguous. Fiction, in particular lyrical works, is an example of the use of means of expression, the most important source of expressiveness of speech.
At the lessons of the Russian language and literature, schoolchildren learn to find figurative means of language in works - metaphors, epithets, comparisons, and others. They give clarity to the depiction of certain objects and phenomena, but it is precisely such means that cause difficulty both in a thorough understanding of the work and in learning in general. Therefore, an in-depth study of the means is an integral part of the educational process.
Let's look at each path in more detail.
LEXICAL MEANS OF LANGUAGE EXPRESSION
1. Antonyms- different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning
(good - evil, powerful - powerless).The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech, serves as a means of antithesis: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit. Contextual (or contextual) antonyms are words that are not opposed in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text:
Mind and heart - ice and fire- that's the main thing that distinguished this hero.2. Hyperbole- a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression:
Snow fell from the sky in pounds. 3. Litota- the worst understatement: man with nails.Used to enhance the artistic impression. Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms) - due to their novelty, allow you to create certain artistic effects, express the author's view on a topic or problem:
… how can we ourselves ensure that our rights are not expanded at the expense of the rights of others? (A. Solzhenitsyn)The use of literary images helps the author to better explain any situation, phenomenon, other image:
Grigory was, apparently, the brother of Ilyusha Oblomov. Italic4. Synonyms- these are words related to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning:
Love is love, friend is friend.Used Synonyms allow you to more fully express the idea, use. To enhance the feature. Contextual (or contextual) synonyms - words that are synonyms only in the given text:
Lomonosov - a genius - a beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)5. Metaphor- a hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. At the heart of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature. In artistic speech, the author uses metaphors to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to create and evaluate a picture of life, to convey the inner world of the characters and the point of view of the narrator and the author himself. In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands what kind of similarity the semantic relationship between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based on:
There were, are, and, I hope, always will be more good people in the world than bad and evil ones, otherwise disharmony would set in the world, it would warp... capsized and sank.Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a kind of metaphor.
6. Metonymy– transfer of values (renaming) according to the adjacency of phenomena. The most common cases of transfer: a) from a person to his any external signs:
Is lunch coming soon? - asked the guest, referring to the quilted vest; Italicb) from an institution to its inhabitants:
The entire boarding school recognized the superiority of D.I. Pisarev; Magnificent Michelangelo! (about his sculpture) or. Reading Belinsky...7. Oxymoron- a combination of contrasting words that create a new concept or idea. This is a combination of logically incompatible concepts, sharply contradictory in meaning and mutually exclusive. This technique sets the reader to the perception of contradictory, complex phenomena, often - the struggle of opposites. Most often, an oxymoron conveys the author's attitude to an object or phenomenon, or gives an ironic connotation:
The sad fun continues...8. Personification- one of the types of metaphor, when the transfer of a sign is carried out from a living object to an inanimate one. When impersonating, the described object is externally used by a person:
The trees, leaning towards me, stretched out their thin arms. Even more often, actions that are permissible only to people are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain splashed bare feet along the paths of the garden. Pushkin is a miracle.10. Paraphrase(s)– use of a description instead of a proper name or title; descriptive expression, turn of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition:
The city on the Neva sheltered Gogol.11. Proverbs and sayings used by the author make the speech figurative, apt, expressive.
12. Comparison- one of the means of expressiveness of the language, helping the author to express his point of view, create whole artistic pictures, give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparison is usually joined by conjunctions:
Like, as if, as if, exactly, etc.
but it serves for a figurative description of the most diverse features of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, comparison helps to give an accurate description of a color:
Like the night, his eyes are black.Often there is a form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case:
Anxiety snaked its way into our hearts.There are comparisons that are included in the sentence using words:
similar, similar, reminiscent: ... butterflies are like flowers.13. Phraseologisms- these are almost always bright expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, use. In order to show the author's attitude to events, to a person, etc.:
people like my hero have a divine spark.Phraseologisms have a stronger effect on the reader.
14. Quotes from other works they help the author to prove any thesis, the position of the article, show his passions and interests, make the speech more emotional, expressive:
A.S. Pushkin like first love", will not forget not only "Russian heart" but also world culture.
15. Epithet- a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition for another:
chatterbox forty, fatal hours. eagerly peers; listens frozen;but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative sense:
sleepy, tender, loving eyes.16. Gradation- a stylistic figure, concluding in a consequent injection or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech:
For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world!Gradation is ascending (strengthening of the feature) and descending (weakening of the feature).
17. Antithesis- a stylistic device that consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.
18. Tautology- repetition (better, the author's words are the words of the author) Colloquial vocabulary adds complement. Expressive-emotional. Coloring (put, deny, reduce) can give a playful, ironic, familiar attitude to the subject.
19. Historicisms-words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts they denoted
(chain mail, coachman)
20. Archaisms- words that are in modern. Rus. The language is replaced by other concepts.
(mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)In the works of the artist Lit. They help to recreate the color of the era, are a means of speech characteristics, or can be used as a means of comic
21. Borrowings- Words - to create humor, a nominative function, give a national. Coloring brings the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is described.
SYNTACTIC MEANS OF EXPRESSION
1. Exclamation particles- a way of expressing the emotional mood of the author, a technique for creating emotional pathos of the text:
Oh, how beautiful you are, my land! And how good are your fields!Exclamatory sentences express the emotional attitude of the author to the described (anger, irony, regret, joy, admiration):
Disgraceful attitude! How can you save happiness!Exclamatory sentences also express a call to action:
Let's save our soul as a shrine!2. Inversion- Reverse word order in a sentence. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition is after the control word, the adverb of the mode of action is before the verb:
The youth of today quickly realized the falsity of this truth.And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than is established by grammatical rules. This is a strong expressive means used in emotional, excited speech:
Beloved homeland, my native land, should we take care of you!3. Polyunion- a rhetorical figure, consisting in the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and emotional selection of the enumerated concepts, the role of each is emphasized .:
And the thunder did not strike, and the sky did not fall on the earth, and the rivers did not overflow from such grief!4. Parceling- a technique for dividing a phrase into parts or even into separate words. Its purpose is to give speech intonational expression by its abrupt pronunciation:
The poet suddenly stood up. Turned pale.5. Repeat- the conscious use of the same word or combination of words in order to enhance the meaning of this image, concept, etc.:
Pushkin was a sufferer, a sufferer in the full sense of the word.6. Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations- a special means of creating the emotionality of speech, expressing the author's position.
Who hasn't cursed the stationmasters, who hasn't scolded them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write in it their useless complaint of oppression, rudeness and malfunction? What summer, what summer? Yes, it's just magic!7. Syntactic parallelism- the same construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author seeks to highlight, emphasize the expressed idea: Mother is an earthly miracle. Mother is a sacred word. The combination of short simple sentences and long complex or complex sentences helps to convey the pathos of the article, the emotional mood of the author.
« 1855 The zenith of Delacroix's glory. Paris. Palace of Fine Arts ... in the central hall of the exposition - thirty-five paintings of the great romantic.One-part, incomplete sentences make the author's speech more expressive, emotional, enhance the emotional pathos of the text:
A human babble. Whisper. The rustle of dresses. Quiet steps ... Not a single stroke, - I hear the words. - No smears. How alive.8. Anaphora, or monotony is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. It is used to strengthen the expressed thought, image, phenomenon:
How to describe the beauty of the sky? How to tell about the feelings that overwhelm the soul at this moment?9. Epiphora- the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.:
I have been going to you all my life. I have believed in you all my life. I have loved you all my life.
10. Water words are used to express
confidence (of course), uncertainty (maybe), various feelings (fortunately), source of the statement (according to words), order of events (firstly), evaluation (to put it mildly), to attract attention (you know, you understand, listen)11.Appeals- used to name the person to whom the speech is addressed, to attract the attention of the interlocutor, and also to express the attitude of the speaker to the interlocutor
(Dear and dear mother! - common appeal e)12. Homogeneous members of the proposal- their use helps to characterize the object (by color, shape, quality ...), focus on some point
13. Sentence words
- Yes! But how! Certainly! Used in colloquial speech, express strong feelings of motivation.14. Isolation- is used to highlight or clarify part of the statement:
(At the fence, at the very gate ...)In the work of any author, expressive means play a huge role. And to create a good solid detective, with its forcing atmosphere, mysterious murders and even more mysterious and vivid characters, they are simply necessary. Expressive means serve to enhance the expressiveness of statements, to give "voluminousness" to the characters and sharpness of the dialogues. Using expressive means, the writer has the opportunity to more fully and beautifully express his thoughts, to fully bring the reader up to date.
Expressive means are divided into:
Lexical (archaisms, barbarisms, terms)
Stylistic (metaphor, personification, metonymy, hyperbole, paraphrase)
Phonetic (using the sound texture of speech)
Graphic (graphon)
Stylistic expressive means are a way of giving emotionality and expressiveness to speech.
Syntactic expressive means are the use of syntactic constructions for stylistic purposes, for the semantic highlighting (underlining) of any words or sentences, giving them the desired color and meaning.
Lexical expressive means is a special use of words (often in their figurative meaning) in figures of speech.
Phonetic expressive means is the use of the sound texture of speech in order to increase expressiveness.
Graphic - show deviations from the norms of speech.
Lexical expressive means.
Archaisms.
Archaisms are words and expressions that have gone out of everyday use and are felt as outdated, reminiscent of a bygone era. From the Great Soviet Encyclopedia: “Archaism is a word or expression that is outdated and has ceased to be used in ordinary speech. Most often used in literature as a stylistic device to give solemnity to speech and to create realistic coloring when depicting antiquity. Whilome - formerly, to trow - to think - these are obsolete words that have analogues in modern English. There are also words that have no analogue, for example: gorget, mace. You can also give an example from John Galsworthy's book:
“How thou art sentimental, maman!”.
Foreign words (Foreign words).
Foreign words in stylistics are words and phrases borrowed from a foreign language and not subjected to grammatical and phonetic transformations in the borrowing language.
Terms (Terms) - words and phrases denoting scientific concepts that reflect the properties and characteristics of an object. Here is an example from Theodore Dreiser's The Financier:
“There was a long conversation - a long wait. His father came back to say I was doubtful whether they could make the loan. Eight per cent, then being secured for money, was a small rate of interest; considering its need. For ten per cent Kugel might make a call-loan."
Stylistic means of expression.
Periphrase (Periphrasis) is the use of a proper name as a common noun, or, conversely, the use of a descriptive phrase instead of a proper name. For example, instead of the word "readers" A.S. Pushkin in his poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" says "Friends of Lyudmila and Ruslan!". "He is Napoleon of crime" (Conan Dole).
Epithet (Epithet) - a figurative definition of an object, usually characterized by an adjective. Examples are good, bed, cold, hot, green, yellow, big, small, etc.
Hyperbole (Hyperbole) - the use of a word or expression that exaggerates the actual degree of quality, the intensity of the feature or the scale of the subject of speech. Hyperbole deliberately distorts reality, enhancing the emotionality of speech. Hyperbole is one of the oldest expressive means, and it is widely used in folklore and epic poetry of all times and peoples. Hyperbole has become so firmly established in our lives that we often do not perceive it as hyperbole. For example, hyperbole includes such everyday expressions as: a thousand apologies, a million kisses, I haven "t seen you for ages, I beg a thousand pardons. "He heard nothing. He was more remote them the stars" (S. Chaplin) .
Metaphor (Metaphor) - a type of trope (trope - a poetic turn, the use of a word in a figurative sense, a departure from literal speech), a figurative meaning of a word based on likening one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast. Like hyperbole, metaphor is one of the oldest expressive means, and ancient Greek mythology can serve as an example of this, where the sphinx is a cross between a man and a lion, and a centaur is a cross between a man and a horse.
"Love is a star to every wandering bark" (from Shakespeare's sonnet). We see that the reader is given the opportunity to compare such concepts as "star" and "love".
In Russian, we can find such examples of metaphor as "iron will", "bitterness of separation", "warmth of the soul" and so on. Unlike a simple comparison, the metaphor does not contain the words “like”, “as if”, “as if”.
Metonymy (Metonymy) - establishing a connection between phenomena or objects by contiguity, transferring the properties of an object to the object itself, with the help of which these properties are discovered. In metonymy, the effect can be replaced by the cause, the content by the capacity, the material from which the thing is made can replace the designation of the thing itself. The difference between metonymy and metaphor is that metonymy deals only with those connections and combinations that exist in nature. So, in Pushkin, the "hiss of foamy glasses" replaces the foaming wine itself, poured into glasses. At A.S. Griboedov, Famusov recalls: "Not on silver, on gold." In English, there are such examples of metonymy as:
She has a quick pen. Or:
"The stars and stripes invaded Iraq". In the first case, in the example of metonymy, the characteristic is transferred from the girl herself to her pen, and in the second, the color and design of the flag replaces the name of the country.
Gradation (Climax) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped according to the increase or decrease in their emotional and semantic significance. This is a gradual strengthening or weakening of the images used to build up the effect. Example:
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees. (S.A. Yesenin).
In English, you can find such examples of gradation:
"Little by little, bit by bit, day by day, he stayed of her." Or a sequential enumeration of signs in ascending order: clever, talented, genius.
Oxymoron (Oxymoron) - a special kind of antithesis (opposition), based on the combination of contrasting quantities. An oxymoron is a direct correlation and combination of contrasting, seemingly incompatible signs and phenomena. An oxymoron is often used to achieve the desired effect when describing a person's character, indicating a certain inconsistency of human nature. So, with the help of the oxymoron “splendor of shamelessness”, a capacious characterization of a woman of easy virtue in W. Faulkner’s novel “The City” is achieved. The oxymoron is also widely used in the titles of works ("Young lady-peasant", "Living corpse", etc.). Among English authors, oxymoron is widely used by William Shakespeare in his tragedy Romeo and Juliet:
Oh brawling love! O loving hate!
Oh anything! of nothing first create.
O heavy lightness! serious vanity!
(1 act, scene 1).
Comparison (Simile) is a rhetorical figure close to metaphor, revealing a common feature when comparing two objects or phenomena. Comparison differs from metaphor in that it contains the words "like", "as if", "as if". Comparison is widely used both in literature and in everyday speech. For example, everyone knows such expressions as: “plow like an ox”, “hungry like a wolf”, “stupid as a cork”, etc. We can observe examples of comparisons in A.S. Pushkin in the poem "Anchar":
Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
Worth - alone in the entire universe.
In English, there are such comparisons as: fresh as rose, fat as a pig, to fit like a glove. An example of a comparison can be cited from Ray Bradbury's short story "A sound of thunder" ("And Thunder Rang"):
"Like a stone idol, like a mountain avalanche, Tyrannosaurus fell"
Personification is the endowment of objects and phenomena of inanimate nature with the features of living beings. Personification helps the writer to more accurately convey his feelings and impressions of the surrounding nature.
How soon hath Time, the subtle thief of youth,
Stoln of wing my three and twen teeth year! (classical poetry of the 17th-18th centuries)
Antithesis (Antithesis) - artistic opposition. This is a method of enhancing expressiveness, a way of conveying life's contradictions. According to the writers, the antithesis is especially expressive when it is made up of metaphors. For example, in G.R. Derzhavin’s poem “God”: “I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!” Or A.S. Pushkin:
They agreed. Water and stone
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different among themselves ... ("Eugene Onegin")
Also, many artistic oppositions are contained in proverbs and sayings. Here is an example of a common English saying:
"To err is human and to forget is divine." Or here is such a vivid example of antithesis:
"The music professor"s lessons were light, but his fees were high".
Also, stylistic expressive means include the use of slang and neologisms (words formed by the author himself). Slang can be used both to create an appropriate flavor, and to enhance the expressiveness of speech. The authors resort to neologisms, as a rule, when they cannot get by with the traditional set of words. For example, with the help of the neologism "loud-boiling cup", F.I. Tyutchev creates a vivid poetic image in the poem "Spring Thunderstorm". Examples from English are the words headful - a head full of ideas; handful - a handful.
Anaphora - unity of command. This is a technique that consists in the fact that different lines, stanzas, sentences begin with the same word.
"Not a little thing like that! Not a butterfly! cry Eckels".
Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. Epiphora is the repetition at the end of a segment of the text of the same word or phrase, a single ending of phrases or sentences.
I woke up alone, I walked alone and returned home alone.
Syntactic expressive means.
Syntactic expressive means include, first of all, the author's arrangement of signs, designed to highlight any words and phrases, as well as to give them the desired color. Syntactic means include inversion (inversion) - incorrect word order (You know him?), unfinished sentences (I don "t know ...), italicization of individual words or phrases.
phonetic means of expression.
Phonetic expressive means include onomitopia (Onomethopea) - the use by the author of words whose sound texture resembles any sounds. In Russian, you can find many examples of onomitopy, for example, the use of the words rustles, whispers, crunches, meows, crows, and so on. In English, words such as moan, scrabble, bubbles, crack, scream belong to onomitopy. Onomitopia is used to convey sounds, manners of speech, partly the voice of the hero.
Graphic expressive means.
Graphon (Graphon) - non-standard spelling of words, emphasizing the features of the character's speech. An example of a graphon is an excerpt from Ray Bradbury's story "The sound of thunder":
“His mouth trembled, asking: “Who-who won the presidential election yesterday?”.
The use of expressive means by the author makes his speech more saturated, expressive, emotional, vivid, individualizes his style and helps the reader to feel the author's position in relation to the characters, moral norms, historical figures and era.
