Specific vocabulary examples. Dictionary of basic terms and concepts of the course. Vocabulary and phraseology

Abstract, abstract vocabulary is words that name such objects, actions and properties that are not perceived by our senses (hypothesis, thinking, differentiate, know, acceptable, expedient, etc.).

Antonyms (gr. anti - against; onyma - name) - words that are different in sound, having directly opposite meanings: truth - lies, good - evil, speak - be silent. Antonyms, as a rule, refer to one part of speech and form pairs.

Archaisms are the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other words belonging to the active vocabulary; cf .: every day - always, comedian - actor, necessary - necessary, percy - chest, verb - to speak. Their main difference from historicisms is the presence of synonyms in the modern language, devoid of a hint of archaism.

Argo (French argot - closed, inactive) is a special language of the so-called declassed elements of society: thieves, beggars, vagabonds. Argo acts as a means of isolating a particular social group from the rest of society and serves as a kind of secret language. This is a secret, artificial language of the underworld (criminal music, raspberry, split, nix, fraer, etc.).

The internal form of a word is a way of motivating the meaning of a given word, a way of representing extralinguistic content in a language. It is an indicator of how this or that object of objective reality is reflected in the meaning of a lexical unit.

Denotative meaning is the subject meaning of a lexical unit; it characterizes the specific, actual correlation of such a unit with the subject and situation. For example, to the question: “What does the verb go mean in this sign situation?” it is the denotative meaning of this word that can answer: in the sentence The color red goes more towards your black hair, the verb go12 means “to be in the face”.

A dialect is a set of phonetic, lexical and grammatical features of a particular language, common in a certain territory. For example, in the southern Russian dialects there are the words beetroot (beetroot), tsibulya (onion), gutorit (speak), in the northern ones - a sash (belt), basco (beautiful), golitsy (mittens).

Jargon is a social type of speech used by a narrow circle of native speakers, united by a common interest, occupation, position in society. In modern Russian, youth jargon, or slang, is distinguished (English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions, age groups). Jargons, as a rule, have equivalents in the national language: a hostel - a hostel, a stipuha - a scholarship, spurs - cribs, etc.

Historicisms are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts: oprichnik, chain mail, gendarme, policeman, hussar, tutor, college, Bolshevik, NEP, surplus appraisal, kulak, middle peasant, etc. The appearance of historicisms, as a rule, is caused by extralinguistic reasons: social transformations in society , the development of production, the renewal of weapons, household items, etc. Historicisms, unlike other obsolete words, do not have synonyms in modern Russian.

Specific vocabulary is words that name specific objects, i.e. objects of the material world, perceived by our senses (orange, book, TV, halva, sun, ice, etc.), and denoting specific actions and properties (run, shoot, drink, orange, white, etc.).

Structurally limited meanings are meanings that are realized only in certain grammatical constructions, due to which they differ from other meanings. For example, the word cargo with the direct meaning "heaviness, heavy object" in the construction in the form of the genitive case cargo of years acquires a figurative meaning "the severity of lived events, memories".

Context is the immediate environment of the word, i.e. a piece of text (sentence) sufficient to reveal the meaning of a given word.

A lexico-semantic group (LSG) is a relatively closed series of lexical units of the same part of speech, united by a common seme, namely, an archiseme of a more specific content and a classification of a lower order than the archiseme of a field. For example, in the subclass “age of a person” of the semantic field “person”, one can single out LSG young, young, underage, adult, elderly, old, decrepit, etc. (designation of age, its various assessment and qualifications).

The lexico-semantic version of a word (LSV) is a set of all grammatical forms of a given word, correlated with one specific meaning. For example, water1 (water, water, water, water, water...) is a “transparent colorless liquid”. LSV as an elementary unit is the unity of a lexeme and a sememe. A lexeme is a sign, a sound or graphic shell of a language unit, its form, a sememe is its content, which is realized in speech (text).

The lexical meaning of a word is a reflection in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.). However, in the lexical meaning of the word, not all the features inherent in any object are characterized, but only those that help to distinguish one object from another. For example, the lexical meaning of the word rose is defined as follows: “a shrub plant of the Rosaceae family with beautiful large fragrant flowers and a stem usually covered with thorns, as well as such a flower itself”, i.e. those signs that distinguish a rose from other plants (flowers) are listed.

Metaphor (gr. metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features. Items may be similar in shape (ring 1 on hand - ring 2, smoke); by color (golden 1 medallion - golden 2 curls); by function (fireplace1 - "room stove" and fireplace2 - "electrical device for space heating"), etc.

Metonymy (gr. metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity. Thus, the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made is metonymic (gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); place names - for groups of people who are there (bright audience - attentive audience), etc.

Polysemy (polysemy) is the ability of a word to have several meanings. Most of the words of the Russian language are polysemantic or polysemantic (gr. poly - many; semantikos - meaning), they are opposed to single-valued words.

Motivated (derivatives) are meanings that are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and word-building affixes. A derived word is semantically and formally derived from another related word that motivates the first. For example, words with a motivated meaning include: winter, hibernate, in winter; student, student, students; run, refugee, jog, escape, runner, flight; whiten, whiten, whitewash, whiteness, whitish, white, etc.

Unmotivated (non-derivative) meanings are meanings that are not determined by the meaning of the morphemes included in the word. For example, words with an unmotivated meaning include: winter, student, run, white, etc.

Neologisms are new words that have not yet become the usual and everyday names of the corresponding objects, concepts. For example: cool, briefing, casting, inauguration, federal, cash, blog, etc.

Non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which is determined not only by subject-logical relations, but also by linguistic factors proper. Among the lexically non-free meanings, two more groups of meanings are distinguished: phraseologically related and syntactically determined with a variety of constructively limited ones.

Nominative values ​​are values ​​that are used to nominate phenomena, objects, qualities, properties, actions, etc.

Unambiguity (monosemy) (gr. monos - one; semantikos - meaning) is the ability of words to act in only one meaning. For example: dederon, tram, binoculars, gastritis, interjection, turquoise, pizza.

Homographs (gr. homos - the same; grapho - I write) - words that are spelled the same, but pronounced differently. Usually they have an accent on different syllables: mugs - mugs, fell asleep - fell asleep, soar - soar, etc.

Homonyms are words that sound the same and are spelled the same, but have completely different meanings. For example, key 1 is a “spring” (cold key) and key 2 is “a metal rod of a special shape for unlocking and locking a lock” (steel key); bow1 - "plant" (green onion) and bow2 - "weapon for throwing arrows" (tight bow).

Homophones (gr. homos - the same; phone - sound) - words that sound the same, but are spelled differently. For example, the words meadow and onion, young and hammer, etc.

Homoforms are words that coincide only in one grammatical form (less often - in several). For example, three is a numeral in Im. n. (three friends) and three - a verb in the imperative mood in 2 liters. units hours (three carrots faster).

Onomasiology is an aspect of semantics in which meaning is studied from the plane of content to the plane of expression. Unlike semasiology, another question arises here: “What words or combinations of words exist to express this meaning, content?”. For example, what words are there in Russian to denote movement, movement in space? What words and phrases are used to convey the concept of beauty? This is already the position of another participant in communication - the speaker or writer, as well as the task of other dictionaries in which words are not arranged alphabetically, but according to semantic commonality and proximity.

The paradigmatic meaning characterizes the non-linear relationships of lexical units that are semantically related and opposed to each other within the paradigm (class). In vocabulary, paradigms are synonymous series, antonymic pairs, lexico-semantic groups, semantic fields. The lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are quite stable and usually do not change under the influence of the context.

Paronyms (gr. rara - near; onuma - name) are single-root words that are similar in sound, but do not match in meaning: signature - painting, dress - put on, spectacular - effective, lacquer - lacquered. Paronyms belong to one part of speech and perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence.

The figurative (indirect, secondary) meaning of a word is the meaning that arises as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, contiguity of their features, functions, etc. So, the word nest has several figurative meanings: 1. "A brood of animals (special)": wolf nests. 2. "A group of closely growing young plants, berries, mushrooms": a nest of milk mushrooms. 3. "A recess into which something is inserted." 4. "A hiding place for something": machine gun nests. 5. "In linguistics: a group of words with a common root": a derivational nest.

A concept is a reflection in the mind of a person of a class of any homogeneous objects in the form of a set of essential features of these objects.

Saying, for example, a bird, we do not mean some real bird, with one or another of its features (for example, with yellow plumage, with a certain shape of paws and beak, special singing data), but a class of objects (within this class there may be varieties that receive qualifying names: migratory birds, waterfowl, songbirds, etc.).

The direct (basic, primary) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the word nest directly indicates an object and has the main meaning “in birds, insects, reptiles, rodents and some other animals: a place of habitation, laying eggs and raising cubs”: to nest.

Free meanings have words with wide possibilities of lexical compatibility. However, the compatibility of such words is limited by the subject-logical connections of words in the language and is regulated by the subject compatibility / incompatibility of the concepts they denote. For example, the word eat in the meaning of “eat, eat” is combined with words denoting food: cottage cheese, borscht, sweets, pies, etc., but is not combined with such words as, for example, sofa, moon, gold, cowardice, walking.

A semantic field is a set of linguistic units united by a common meaning. Lexical units are included in semantic fields on the basis that they have a common seme or archiseme that unites them, for example: mother, father, son, daughter, grandson, grandmother, grandfather, nephew, etc. - enter the semantic field of kinship names as having the archiseme "relative / relative". It is possible to distinguish the semantic field "person", the fields of color designation, movement, etc.

Semasiology is the aspect of semantics in which meaning is studied from the plane of expression to the plane of content. This raises the question: “What does this word or combination of words mean?”. For example, what are the meanings of the verb udmu in Russian? Such an approach to semantics reflects the point of view of the one who perceives the sounding speech or the reader and corresponds to the main purpose of explanatory dictionaries, which reveal the content of one of the main categorical relations of vocabulary - polysemy.

Significative meaning is a specifically linguistic reflection of objective reality. The significative meaning as the main linguistic content of a lexical unit is presented in dictionaries in the form of an interpretation. For example, we want to know what the word dramaturgy means. In the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" S.I. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova gives the following interpretation of this word: 1. Dramatic art; theory of the construction of dramatic works. 2. The totality of such works. 3. The plot-figurative basis of the play, film.

Synonyms (gr. synonymos - the same name) are words that are close or identical in meaning, which call the same concept differently. Synonyms differ from each other either by a shade of meaning (close), or by stylistic coloring (unambiguous, i.e. identical), or by both. For example: brave - brave, courageous, fearless, fearless, daring.

The syntagmatic meaning characterizes the linear relationships of lexical units and is manifested in the patterns of combining words with each other. Such a subspecies of structural meaning is called valence or compatibility. The compatibility of words is determined by their subject-semantic relationships, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word wooden can be combined with the words table, house, box, combinations of a wooden voice, even a wooden facial expression are possible, since the word wooden is distinguished by its ability to develop figurative meanings. Combinations are impossible: “wooden cottage cheese”, “wooden clover”, as well as “wooden dream”.

Syntactically determined meanings appear in words that perform an unusual syntactic function in a sentence. For example, the words bear - "clumsy, clumsy person", donkey - "stupid stubborn", hat - "uninitiative person, muddler", oak - "stupid, insensitive person" develop a predicative characterizing meaning and perform the function of a predicate in a sentence, and not subject or object: What kind of bear are you! Well, you're a hat.

Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms, are words borrowed from the Old Slavonic language - the language of Slavic translations of Greek books, translations made by Constantine and Methodius and their students in the second half of the 9th century.

Structural meaning is a formal characteristic of the properties of a lexical unit, determines its place in the language system. This meaning is revealed through the relation of words to each other and has two subspecies: syntagmatic meaning and paradigmatic meaning.

The word as a unit of vocabulary is the unity of the sign, i.e. the sound and graphic shell of the word, and the meaning - a specific linguistic reflection of reality. It serves to name (designate) objects, phenomena, signs, actions, states, quantities, etc.: oak, snow, green, love, cold, five, etc.

Terms - words or phrases that name special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. For example, in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective, pronoun; in medicine: heart attack, myoma, periodontitis, cardiology, etc. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and concise description of an object or phenomenon.

Technicisms are highly specialized names used in the field of technology.

Phraseologism is a semantically transformed (rethought) language unit that is stable in the language and reproduced in speech, which has a separate form and expressiveness and consists of more than one word.

Phraseology (from Gr. phrasis, R. p. hraseos - expression, logos - word, doctrine): 1) a section of linguistics that studies the phraseological composition of the language in its current state and historical development; 2) a set of phraseological units of a given language, the same as phraseological composition.

Phraseologically related meanings are realized only in phraseological combinations, i.e. in conditions of certain combinations of a given word with a strictly limited range of lexical units. For example, the word bosom can only be combined with the word friend, the word sworn - only with the noun enemy; the verb to take in the meaning of “embrace” has a wider range of words that can be combined with: longing, annoyance, evil, laughter, doubt takes, however, its “associative” possibilities are limited - one cannot say: “joy takes, happiness takes”, etc. .d.

Expressive-synonymous meanings are meanings in which the connotative, emotional-evaluative feature is the main one. For example, in the words shorty, dirty woman, snooze, echidna (meaning "evil, caustic and treacherous person"), partying, squabbles, bludgeoning, the connotation prevails over the denotation, i.e. emotional-figurative, evaluative and stylistic features obscure the objective meaning.

Emotive meaning is a specific linguistic expression of the evaluation of the signified by means of stylistically marked lexical units. In other words, it is an emotional, evaluative, expressive, stylistic component of lexical meaning. Words with this kind of meaning have a connotation, i.e. additional semantic shades that enrich the semantics of the word and express various kinds of expressive and evaluative characteristics. For example, in the sentence Yes, Nina has almost even less than me, and with the car she was probably cheated (I. Solovyova), the verb cheat has a pronounced negative connotation, has a stylistic mark “colloquial” in dictionaries; the neutral equivalents of this verb are to deceive, to deceive.

Abstract Vocabulary Prepared by Kornilova Natalia, 1st year Master's student in "Pedagogical Education: Language Education" of the FEFU School of Pedagogy Introduction In linguistics, since the time of Ferdinand de Saussure, it has been customary to distinguish between language and speech. Speech is a product of human verbal activity, realized in sound and written forms. Speech is concrete: we hear sounds, words, phrases, or we can read letters and their combinations in the text; in the production of speech, the movement of the articulatory apparatus occurs; in writing, the physical movements of the hand, etc. Unlike speech, language is a kind of construct, a kind of generalization of what is in speech. In its specific manifestations, speech is multivariate: the same word, the same phrase can be pronounced differently: loudly, in a whisper, (down to the smallest shades of meaning). The result of abstraction from real-sounding speech is some ideas about how the language works. These representations are abstract: they contain not this or that concrete sound, this or that concrete statement, but the image of the sound, some generalized syntactic construction. The more ordered such representations are, the more likely they are to correctly reflect the structure of the language. Unlike speech, language is systematic and structured. Each element in it is conditioned by others and, in turn, conditions them. The mechanism of linguistic abstraction from speech concreteness operates at different levels of linguistic structure - from phonology to syntax. We will consider the category of the abstract in vocabulary. 1 The Category of the Abstract in Vocabulary Abstraction and the very process of abstraction are extremely characteristic of the language. The opposition of the abstract and the concrete permeates all tiers of the linguistic structure and is reflected both in the word and its meaning, and in other units of the language. The most obvious example of abstraction in the field of vocabulary is the division of significant words into concrete and abstract ones. The former denote things, devices, mechanisms, substances, natural objects, etc., the latter denote properties, features, processes, states. Compare: a house, a suitcase, a string, trousers and freshness, warmth, development. In addition, the categories of abstract vocabulary may differ from each other in the degree of abstraction. We can agree that action is more abstract than a thing, an object (see and eye, hear and ear). In turn, the physical action is more specific than the mental action (to break, split, cut - think, count, opinion). The meaning of the word is also an abstraction, reflecting the main semantic properties of the word. We judge the meaning of a word by the contexts in which the word is used. When interpreting the meanings of a word, we take into account all typical contexts and reject atypical, uncharacteristic, random contexts; thus, distraction, abstraction from speech reality takes place. 2The concept of "abstract vocabulary" Abstract vocabulary is a collection of words with an abstract meaning of quality, property, state, action. Usually, this number includes only abstract nouns that have a grammatical expression of the category of abstraction (certain derivational suffixes, the absence, as a rule, of a plural form, incompatibility with cardinal numbers). Shine. Fuss. hardening. The study. Industrialization. Property. Essence. Silence. Enthusiasm. In a broad sense, proceeding only from the semantic principle, words of other parts of speech can also be included in the abstract vocabulary. So, comparing, on the one hand, the adjectives stone, round, blue, loud, sweet, fragrant, rough, etc., denoting external materialized signs perceived by one of the senses, and on the other hand, adjectives kind, sincere, experienced, moral, smart, sad, lazy, etc. (especially adjectives formed from abstract nouns), we find in the second group words with a greater degree of abstraction, which, with the specified reservation, i.e. That is, without taking into account grammatical indicators, it can be classified as abstract vocabulary. A similar distinction can be made between concrete action verbs (write, read, chop, walk, throw, etc.) and verbs expressing feelings, inner state, etc. (love, hate, have fun, be sad, hope, etc.). etc.): verbs of the second group have a more pronounced abstractness (cf. their correlation with abstract nouns love, hatred, fun, sadness, hope). The question of the broad application of the term "abstract vocabulary" is subject to further study by linguists. Grammatically abstract (abstract) nouns are characterized by the fact that most of them have only singular forms (brilliance, noise, fuss, silence, generality, patience, good, evil, etc.). Only a few of the abstract nouns can be used in the plural when concretizing the meaning (the joys of life, the beauty of nature, noises in the heart, etc.). Some abstract names have only plural forms (more precisely, they are grammatically designed as plural nouns): holidays, twilight, etc. At present, there is a tendency to expand the scope of the use of plural forms in abstract nouns (such as reality, givenness, agreement, heterogeneity). The range of words that can take these forms has increased significantly. This partly reflects the desire of the language for greater accuracy and concreteness of the statement. This is especially noticeable in a special language (for example, acclimatization of fish). Another group of words that actively take on plural forms are verbal names with the meaning of action (watering, emissions, sales, shooting). Distributed in the field of industrial, agricultural, military activities. 3 Word formation of abstract nouns The most productive way of forming nouns with an abstract meaning is suffixal. In the modern Russian literary language, the most productive suffixes of this group are the following: 1) -ost (-nost), with the help of which nouns are formed (from the bases of adjectives and passive participles) with the meaning of an abstract quality, property (vigor, flexibility, sophistication, effeminacy, readiness); such words are most often used in book speech, their circle is expanding more and more (Russianness, newspaper); 2) -bridge (-ability), with the help of which nouns are formed (from the stems of the verb) with the meaning of the state (morbidity, resistance); words with these suffixes are especially common in bookish speech (for example, in a scientific style); 3) -ni-e (-n-e), -eni-e, used to form nouns (from verbal stems) with the meaning of action, process (achievement, penalty, invention, structure, cohesion); words of this kind are characteristic of bookish speech; 4) -atsi-ya (-yatsi-ya), -fikatsi-ya, with the help of which nouns with the meaning of action are formed from the stems of the verb (military, agitation, heating, calculation); words with these suffixes are used in book styles of speech (for example, industrial and technical); 5) -k-a, with the help of which nouns are formed (from verbal stems) with the same (see paragraph 4) meaning (pasting, filling, rejection); 6) -i-e (-e), with the help of which nouns are formed with the meaning of a sign, property (abundance, zeal, expanse); 7) -stv-o (-estv-o), used to form nouns (from nominal stems) with the meaning of state, position, activity (authorship, chairmanship, apprenticeship); words with a complicated suffix -ianism-o (-ianism-o) call an ideological direction, current (Kantianism, Voltairianism); such words are characteristic of the bookish style of speech; 8) -ism, with the help of which nouns (from nominal bases) are formed, which are the name of teachings, trends, inclinations (democratism, Leninism, materialism, optimism, tourism); words with these suffixes are used mainly in book speech; 9) -ur-a, which serves in the formation of words (of foreign origin) to designate a field of activity, a branch of art, a profession (architecture, advocacy, sculpture); words of this kind are used mainly in bookish speech; 10) -age, used in the formation of words for the name of the action (installation, briefing), quantity (footage, tonnage), as well as in the formation of words with a collective meaning (cartonage); this suffix stands out mainly in words of foreign origin; for the Russian language, the most characteristic is the use of this suffix in the formation of nouns denoting the amount of something (listage), and such words are most often used in industrial and technical speech. Looking closely at the collection of masculine suffixes with a general meaning of objectivity, one cannot but pay attention to one of their features: only a few of them combine the abstract meanings of an action, state or quality with the meaning of a particular object. From purely Russian suffixes, this includes the suffix -ok (with the meaning of a specific movement or act, moment of action: throw, click, etc.), from international -am (doctorate, levirate, etc.) and an almost unrecognized international suffix -t (affect, effect, contact, etc.). Most of the suffixes that form abstract words remain outside the system of solid masculine declension. Of the Russian suffixes for a specific action, only the unproductive suffix -ot, -et (without stress) is associated with a solid masculine declension. It is found in verbal nouns denoting sound, noise (sometimes movement associated with some sounds): murmur, tramp, laughter, rumble, babble, tremble, etc. All these words are characterized by vowel harmony. Among the borrowed suffixes, three suffixes have a deeper imprint of abstraction: 1. A very productive suffix -ism (an unproductive variant -azm), which forms the designations of abstract concepts, the names of teachings, social, political, scientific views and directions, the names of actions. states, qualities, inclination towards something: Leninism, Bolshevism, Marxism, communism, optimism, idealism, Machiavellianism, gliding, tourism, racism, etc. The suffix -izm in the modern language is widely used in combination with Russian stems, sometimes even bright colloquial coloring: tailism, navelism, etc. (cf. V. Belinsky in "Literary Dreams": stupidity). Two more abstract suffixes are more specific, but less freely distinguished: 2. -itet (German -ität), denoting abstract or collective concepts: a) authority, priority, neutrality, cf. reverence, etc.; b) generals, cf. faculty, etc. 3. A little tangible international suffix -з, -zis, denoting a process, action or state, product of action: genesis, phylogenesis (cf. ontogenesis), thesis, diagnosis, analysis, etc. In medicine, suffixes -oz , -ez, -azis are used to denote various diseases and abnormalities: neurosis, psychosis, furunculosis, elephantiasis, etc. 4 Classification of the abstract vocabulary of moral semantics Abstract vocabulary includes a fairly large number of words that carry evaluative semantics. Based on the study of materials of explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language of the late XX - early XXI centuries. More than 1,000 verbal units were identified in the vocabulary of moral content, reflecting the categories of morality, different in thematic, grammatical, stylistic characteristics, as well as in origin. As the analysis showed, from the point of view of thematic relevance in the composition of the vocabulary of moral content, the following main groups of verbal units can be distinguished: 1) the names of generalized moral concepts (morality, truth, duty, virtue, truth, good, evil, justice, etc.). d.); 2) the names of the moral qualities of a person, including negative (unscrupulousness, lack of spirituality, dishonesty, cowardice, dishonesty, dishonesty, etc.) and positive (disinterestedness, nobility, fidelity, good thinking, conscientiousness, compassion, honesty, etc.). 3) the names of persons according to moral qualities, determined in relation to other people and themselves (shameless, shameless, greedy, swindler, bashful, etc.), characteristics from other people (sufferer, lover of money, truth seeker, etc.), in relation to nature and society (traitor, lumpen, mankurt, traitor, sycophant, etc.). 4) the names of actions that reflect the moral qualities of a person in actions, deeds, behavior (have mercy, submit, sin, act out of order, be ashamed, etc.). 5) the names of the areas of human activity in which his moral qualities are manifested (mocking, shaming, shaming, dishonoring, defamation, etc.). 6) the names of various social processes and phenomena (humanization, mankurtization, immorality, etc.). 7) the name of a person's states (shame, dishonor, suffering, etc.). The thematic division of the studied vocabulary is closely related to the differentiation of verbal units according to lexico-grammatical classes of words, that is, according to parts of speech. In quantitative terms, the Russian vocabulary of moral content consists mainly of nouns (40.8%) and adjectives (34.7%), verbs make up 19.2%, and participles and gerunds - only 3.2% of the total number units under study. Studies show that a special group of words within the vocabulary of moral content in the Russian language is made up of verbal units with positive semantics, having the initial good-, great- or good-, naming the moral and ethical properties and qualities of a person: good thinking, benevolence, generosity, decency, piety, generosity, kindness, etc. Most of the words in this group are traditionally associated with religious themes, which explains the peculiarities of their use, mainly in book speech. The basis of this group of words are lexical units that have the most generalized meaning of "moral qualities": virtue, nobility and kindness. Conclusion The category of the abstract and the process of abstraction itself are extremely important in language teaching. Observing speech, it is necessary to draw conclusions about the mechanisms that govern speech - grammatical rules, lexico-semantic relations and patterns. Such generalizations of speech facts constitute the process of abstraction, during which we form a holistic idea of ​​how the language works, what are the non-random, systemic relationships between its units - phonemes, morphemes, words, syntactic constructions. Replenishment of students' vocabulary is an urgent problem of school teaching the Russian language. Acquaintance with abstract concepts will cause certain difficulties for younger students. This is due to the fact that children have more developed visual-figurative thinking. The teacher is required to be able to work to enrich the vocabulary of children with abstract vocabulary. Of particular importance is the abstract vocabulary of moral semantics, since its assimilation affects the formation of norms of behavior. References Sitnikova, O.V. Vocabulary of moral content in Russian: full text of the dissertation abstract [Electronic resource] // Man and science - library of dissertations in the humanities - http://goo.gl/6G9w4F Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rozental D. E., Telenkova M. A. 1976. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/lingvistic/ http://www.textologia.ru/slovari/lingvisticheskie-terminy/abstraktnaya-leksika/ ?q=486&n=279 http://www.textologia.ru/slovari/lingvisticheskie-terminy/abstraktnaya-leksika/?q=486&n=279 http://www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/xbook107/ 01/part-058.htm

Dictionary of linguistic terms

Abstract vocabulary

(lat. abstractus - remote, abstract) A set of words with an abstract meaning of quality, property, state, action. Usually, this number includes only abstract nouns that have a grammatical expression of the category of abstraction (certain derivational suffixes, the absence, as a rule, of a plural form, incompatibility with cardinal numbers). Shine. Fuss. hardening. The study. Industrialization. Property. Essence. Silence. Enthusiasm. In a broad sense, proceeding only from the semantic principle, words of other parts of speech can also be included in the abstract vocabulary. So, comparing, on the one hand, the adjectives stone, round, blue, loud, sweet, fragrant, rough, etc., denoting external materialized signs perceived by one of the senses, and on the other hand, adjectives kind, sincere, experienced, moral, smart, sad, lazy, etc. (especially adjectives formed from abstract nouns), we find in the second group words with a greater degree of abstraction, which, with the specified reservation, i.e. That is, without taking into account grammatical indicators, it can be classified as abstract vocabulary. A similar distinction can be made between concrete action verbs (write, read, chop, walk, throw, etc.) and verbs expressing feelings, inner state, etc. (love, hate, have fun, be sad, hope, etc.). etc.): verbs of the second group have a more pronounced abstractness ( cf. their correlation with abstract nouns love, hatred, fun, sadness, hope).

Words denoting specific, physically tangible objects: a table, a desk, a person, a tree, potatoes, corn, etc. In the artistic speech of K.l. helps to clarify the statement: Near the path, at the turn, grew a large spruce. Its branches hung over the path, and a shadow fell on the sand, so thick that one could count three or four sun circles in it, no more.. The share of specific vocabulary in colloquial speech is high.

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• - The name that the French acoustic engineer Pierre Schaeffer gave to his noise concertos in 1949, a year after the first such concert was broadcast on French Radio...

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• - a set of words, the vocabulary of the language. The language of any language or dialect is studied by lexicology and semasiology, the language of writers and individual works is studied by stylistics and poetics...

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• - 1) the whole set of words, the vocabulary of the language. 2) A set of words characteristic of a given variant of speech, a particular stylistic layer, for a given writer or one literary work ...

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• - 1) A set of words denoting specific objects or substances in everyday speech, but in the context of scientific speech acquiring a generalized abstract meaning ...

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"specific vocabulary" in books

Mentality and vocabulary

From the book Fundamentals of Cultural Linguistics [textbook] author Khrolenko Alexander Timofeevich

Vocabulary of prostitution

From the book Daily Life of Ancient Greek Women in the Classical Era by Brule Pierre

Vocabulary of prostitution Geter, according to the speaker, men visit for pleasure. But what? Nedone is "enjoyment" in the broad sense of the word, the enjoyment that is received and given, the "enjoyment" of the mind and body; it is "desire" in the plural. Consider polysemy,

Vocabulary and phraseology

From the book How to write books author Khaetskaya Elena Vladimirovna

Vocabulary and Phraseology There is such a section in the textbook of the Russian language. In general, you can write a lot about words and it’s very interesting, there are wonderful books that tell about the origin of words, about the evolution of word usage, about ancient roots, which can do a lot

Vocabulary

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (LE) of the author TSB

Naval vocabulary

author Kolosova Svetlana

Naval vocabulary 2 Yal - a short and wide sea boat. 3 Ray - a metal or wooden bar attached to the mast. 4 Guys - a flag on the bow of the ship. Lad - a sea and river vessel of the ancient Slavs. Lighthouse - a light or radio navigational landmark. Mile -

Professional vocabulary

From the book Crossword Guide author Kolosova Svetlana

Professional vocabulary 5 Lumen - the internal channel of the fiber. 6 Auxin - the growth hormone of wood. Hanger - a device for hanging sheets of paper during air drying.

1.12. Borrowed vocabulary

author Guseva Tamara Ivanovna

1.12. Borrowed vocabulary In different historical periods, words from other languages ​​penetrated into the original Russian language. This was due to the fact that the Russian people entered into economic, cultural, political relations with other peoples, repelling military attacks, concluding

1.17. Common vocabulary

From the book Modern Russian. Practical guide author Guseva Tamara Ivanovna

1.17. Common Vocabulary Vocabulary (from the Greek "verbal", "vocabulary") appears in the following roles: 1) the vocabulary of the language; 2) the totality of words associated with the scope of their use. In this regard, a distinction is made between the vocabulary of oral speech, book and written speech,

Entertaining vocabulary

From the book Computerra Magazine No. 29 of August 16, 2005 author Computerra magazine

Entertaining Vocabulary The most general preliminary information about mate can be found on Wikipedia at ru.wikipedia.org. For those who are not in the know, this is an interactive encyclopedia that is filled in by the users themselves. It is still rather weak, but by design it is really a network

3.2. Profanity

From the book Habits of Losers [You will not become successful if ...] author adams steven

3.2. Profanity To many, profanity may not seem like such a bad habit. Moreover, this is a popular part of the language, recently it has been used more and more often by an increasing number of people, especially on the Internet. Meanwhile, using

Part 3. Vocabulary

From the book How? Earn on your image! Practical guide author Titov Dmitry Yurievich

Part 3. Kiks' vocabulary, in the language of musicians, is a false note. Kiks in the image means using words that clearly do not correspond to your image formula. Carefully monitor the vocabulary. Do not grunt, express your thoughts in some other way. Lewis Carroll "Alice in

Sexual vocabulary

From the book Sex Education for Children and Adolescents author Koteneva Anna Nikolaevna

Sexual vocabulary Modern sexology is an interdisciplinary field of knowledge, one of the directions of which is the study of sexual communications. Through the linguistic and stylistic analysis of written and oral texts of various social groups, it allows

I Translation and vocabulary

From the book Monsters and Critics and other articles author Tolkien John Ronald Reuel

I Translation and Vocabulary There is usually no justification for translating Beowulf. But the translation of the poem into modern English (and the publication of such a transcription) really needs justification - after all, we are talking about a prose translation of the poem,

Sexual vocabulary

From the book Microglossary of Sexual Vocabulary author Kashchenko Evgeniy Avgustovich

Sexual Vocabulary Medical sexology is the only area of ​​science about sex and sexual relations that has received official status in Russia. The specific terms prevailing in it constitute the lexical field of communication of sexologists,

METAPHORICAL VOICE

From the book Russian erotic poems, riddles, ditties, proverbs and sayings author Sidorovich A. V.

METAPHORICAL VOCABULARY Used in folklore to define basic sexual concepts Male genital organ Female genital organs Copulation process

Now we will try to supplement the multifaceted description of the mechanisms that operate within the framework of metasememic transformations proposed above, and consider three large classes of words: proper names, concrete and abstract names *. We will not dwell on the category of proper name here, since it is clearly anthropocentric: "sun" is a common noun, but it corresponds to a single object, while Grec "Greek" - a proper name ** - denotes a very large number individuals. What is essential for us is rather the division of names into concrete and abstract ones. specific vocabulary is entirely descriptive, it puts "labels" on the objects of our perception: the sun, the Mediterranean Sea, Paul Valery, the marten... abstract vocabulary includes concepts intended to describe these objects: white, warm, excellent, sharp... We do not undertake here to strictly describe this difference in its entirety and confine ourselves to stating that it is fundamental. In particular, one gets the impression that a specific vocabulary consists mainly of nouns, while words with an abstract meaning, expressing the modal characteristics of surrounding objects, phenomena, are more often adjectives(the word patience "patience" is formed from the adjective patient "patient", and not vice versa).

The ideal interpretation of words with a specific meaning in an ideal dictionary would have to be reduced to an endless list of our knowledge of referent(called thing). These words, in the words of E. Morin, form our "pocket" space (cosmos de poche), through them the empirical world is reflected in our consciousness. Abstract words are related only to concepts. Through these words, our natural desire to analyze the surrounding reality is expressed. Their interpretations can be reduced to a short

* Names include both nouns and adjectives. - Note. transl.

** In French grammar, nouns indicating the nationality of a person are treated as proper names (see, for example, Grevisse 1959, p. 222). - Note. transl.

a sequence of words, a sequence that is unchangeable and final.

It can be seen that this difference bears the imprint of two types of decomposition, which we will now associate with Piaget's scheme (assimilation / accommodation), and thus obtain a new version of the Ogden-Richards triangle:

Rice. ten

Piaget calls assimilation the process of correlating the schemas in our minds with reality: abstract concepts are just such schemas. By accommodation, Piaget understands the process by which we transform our schemes under the influence of our perceived experience: abstract words act as linguistic equivalents of perceived phenomena.

Ideally, one can imagine a bidirectional interaction of the two named lexical categories. On the one hand, descriptive or concrete words, which, generally speaking, are proper names in the narrow sense of the term (for example, the sun), are grouped into more and more extensive classes, each of which has its own name. The word "vegetable" can be seen as the result of a process of gradual abstraction, the starting point of which will be the entire observed diversity of plants. At each next step, a particle of concrete meaning is lost, and instead an abstract concept appears, which, if necessary, can function regardless of the division of words into classes (cf. the function of the French words aérien "air", terrestre "earthly", aquatique "water" in the classification of living beings ). On the other hand, "analyzer words" (les mots-décrets), monosemic

lexemes (for example, lourd "heavy") form more and more complex units, and in the process specification they gradually converge with empirical units (thus creating something like a "reconstruction" of the real world). As a result, the "intermediate" words of these bidirectional, both endocentric and exocentric, series can be considered from both points of view. That is why we considered the tree simultaneously and as an empirical conjunction of all its parts (leaves, roots, trunk), and as a mental disjunction (birch, linden, larch).

We can now begin to describe the different kinds of metasemes in terms of their basic reduction or addition operation.

1. SYNECDOCHE*

1.1. Let's start our description with synecdoche and antonomasia, but not in their full scope: we will talk only about their variety in which the transition is made from the particular to the general, from the part to the whole, from the smaller to the larger, from the species to the genus. Let us immediately note the vagueness of all these concepts. In fact, as we said above, the "trees" and "pyramids" implicitly used in the decomposition and reconstruction of sememes do not necessarily reflect the scientific understanding of the world. In principle, taxonomy at the level of primitive consciousness would also suit us. This is what allows us to consider antonomasia (and here we follow the tradition) as an ordinary kind of synecdoche, since the relationship between Cicero and a multitude of orators is, in principle, reducible to the relationship between species and genus 8 . We can confine ourselves to the criterion of ancient rhetors: more instead of less. In truth, in an arbitrarily chosen literary text, there are hardly many explicit examples of a generalized synecdoche (oC) (synécdoque généralisante). In Du Marset's Tropes, there is practically only one well-known example: "People are called mortels" mere mortals ",

* See general table, C. 1.1 and C. 1.2.

8 Of course, if we strictly approach this issue, Cicero, being an individual, is not a species. See Lalande 1962. But our understanding of "species" differs from the scholastic use of the term.

but this word applies just as well to animals, which, like us, are mortal.” Here is a more striking example, borrowed from R. Keno:

II reprit son chemin et, songeusement quant à la tête, d "un pas net quant aux pieds, il termina sans bavures son itinéraire. Des radis l" attendaient, et le chat qui miaula espérant des sardines, et Amélie qui craignait une combustion trop accentuee du fricot. Le maître de maison grignote les végétaux, caresse l "animal et répond à l" être humain qui lui demande comment sont les nouvelles aujourd "hui: - Pas fameuses.

"He continued on his way, his head occupied with thoughts, his feet clearly striding along the road, and he completed his route without incident. At home, a radish was waiting for him, and a cat that meowed in the hope of getting a sardine, and Amelie, having a legitimate feeling of anxiety about a burnt The owner of the house chews a vegetable with a crunch, strokes an animal, and when asked by a representative of the human race about how things are now, he answers: - So-so.

This example, apparently, is sufficient to illustrate the partial reduction of seme, leading to an expansion of the meaning of the word, that is, giving it a more "general" character. Despite the fact that we have left aside the question of the expressive possibilities of figures, it is easy to see that the generalizing synecdoche gives speech a more abstract, "philosophical" character, which in this naturalistic parody clearly stands out against the background of the specific context.

If this process goes too far, each word will have to be replaced by truc or machin, "thing, thing" or even form a figure (which in this case should be called "asemia") by completely reducing the word. However, let us recall what was said in section 1.2.4 about the invariant: figures obtained by complete reduction do not have an invariant and, therefore, cannot be assigned to any of the four distinguished categories of figures.

Along with the above examples, where the decomposition by type ∑ is used, there are also (though much less frequently) examples by type ∏. These synecdoches

less noticeable: "The man took a cigarette and lit it" ("man" instead of "hand"). It should be noted that it is precisely the synecdoche of the type oC∏ that is one of those that exclude the possibility of constructing a metaphor, and we will return to this issue in a subsequent presentation.

1.2. Narrowing synecdoche(cC) (synecdoque particularisante) or its equivalent antonomasia, are no doubt a much more common type of metabole, especially in novels. By the way, R. Jacobson had in mind this category of figures, which is mixed in his concept with metonymy, when he wrote about the predisposition of "realistic" schools to metonymy. But we repeat once again, in this case we are only interested in the logical structure of the formation of synecdoche. For us, therefore, it does not matter where exactly this or that example of a synecdoche of the type ∏ was encountered, whether in an argot (where instead of the expression faire l "amour" to make love "the expression une partie de jambes en l" air is used), y J. Schaade (... Qu "est-ce à dire de s" impatienter contre les chasubles? "What can I say that there is not enough patience with" robes "?") or in old treatises (the famous voile "sail" instead of vaisseau "ship, vessel").

Type 2 narrowing synecdoches are theoretically possible, of course they exist. But we “feel” them badly, because they introduce designations that are sometimes difficult to say whether they belong to the zero stage or not: can the use of the word “dagger” be considered a figure, for example, where it would be enough to simply say “weapon” ? Is it possible to see a rhetorical figure in the fact that the shepherds and shepherdesses in the famous play by Dufresni are called Philis, Sylvandro or Lisette? We find a more striking example of this kind in J. Schaade:

Dehors nuit zoulou

letters."And outside the window is the Zulu night" (black -\u003e black -\u003e Zulu). In any case, it is remarkable that the synecdoche typg cC∑ is also incompatible with metaphor: we will return to this question below.