Ethnic conflicts: causes and methods of resolution. Ethnic conflict Approaches to the study of ethnicity in the context of conflictology
Ethnic conflicts, which are a manifestation of interethnic tension in the form of specific forms of opposition between ethnic communities (groups), constantly complicate the lives of people in all corners of the globe, so psychology cannot leave them out of its sight. It is important for psychologists to define what is ethnic conflict and what is not; what are their causes, what types do they take and how do they affect people; how ethnic conflicts are resolved or managed. We will consider the most important tasks that psychologists set for themselves when studying and understanding conflicts. Among the general range of problems faced by representatives of all sciences in general, the following can be mentioned:
Construction of classifications and typologies of ethnic conflicts;
Determining the number of ethnic conflicts in a country or region;
Formulating a strategy for exiting a conflict situation or transferring an ethnic conflict into a politically acceptable form;
Determining the circle of experts whose training truly corresponds to the tasks of studying and practical impact on the conflict;
Formation in the public consciousness of people of adequate ideas about the real role of ethnicity and ethnic conflicts in modern political processes in the country.
When objectively analyzing and understanding the essence and content of ethnic conflicts (especially in the social sphere), it is necessary to take into account the socio-economic, political, socio-cultural and socio-psychological values that exist V specific society.
Ethnic conflicts are one of the forms of political relations - confrontation between two or more ethnic groups (or between their individual representatives, between specific subethnic elements), characterized by a state of mutual claims, tending to increase confrontation up to armed clashes, open wars. They arise, as a rule, in a multinational state and are present in the form of confrontation “group - group”, “group - state”.
A specific feature of conflicts between “worlds” is the fundamental impossibility of distinguishing them using logic and rationalism.
The main reason contributing to the preservation of “worlds” is the need for meaning, i.e. the need to create one’s own world as a condition for security, life, self-realization, and identification. Any other “world” is considered hostile and threatening to the existence of this “world”. The conflict of “worlds” means a clash of ways of realizing human needs.
Traditional analytical methods of conflict resolution in the situation of the conflict under consideration are ineffective, since the subjects of the conflict do not want to compromise or make concessions under any circumstances, believing that their vital values and needs are being encroached upon. Such conflicts can be resolved using the method of interethnic reconstruction of the lifeworld - by creating a new world or in the course of gradual structural changes in society.
Russian scientists believe that one of the main prerequisites for ethnic conflict is the ideology of national extremism - the theory and practice of national superiority (non-acceptance of the culture, traditions, religion, customs of another people). National extremism, as a rule, speculates on objective contradictions, difficulties of an economic, social, environmental, spiritual nature, “blank spots” of history, imperfections of the national-state structure, legal protection of the honor and dignity of citizens, excesses in personnel policy based on nationality. All this is given a “national” coloring, the center of gravity is shifted to the opposition of peoples, preaching the exclusivity of “one’s” nation and placing blame on the foreign neighbor.
Ethnic conflicts are accompanied by a certain dynamically changing socio-political situation, generated by the rejection of the previously established situation by a significant part of the representatives of one (several) of the local ethnic groups, and manifested in the form of at least one of the following actions of this group:
a) the beginning of its emigration from the region, defined by the public opinion of this group as an “exodus”, “mass relocation”, etc., significantly changing the local ethno-demographic balance in favor of the “other” remaining ethnic groups;
b) the creation of a political organization (“national” or “cultural” movement, party), declaring the need to change the current situation in the interests of the specified ethnic group (groups) and thereby provoking counteraction from government authorities;
c) spontaneous (not prepared by legally operating organizations) protests against infringement of their interests by representatives of another local ethnic group or government bodies in the form of mass rallies, processions, pogroms.
Ethnic conflict is always a political phenomenon, because even if the initiators of change strive to change the situation only in the cultural or socio-economic field, they can achieve their goals only by acquiring certain power powers sufficient to carry out such a change by subject powers, the redistribution of which is always possible participants in ethnic conflicts strive: the ability and ability of one group of people to control the activities of other groups of people is usually understood.
Ethnic conflicts can be classified on various grounds. The most general classification is the division of ethnic conflicts into two types according to the characteristics of the confrontation between their parties:
1. Conflicts between ethnic group(s) and the state.
2. Conflicts between ethnic groups (between associations of groups).
Scientists often generally call these two types of conflicts interethnic, meaning by them any confrontation between states and substate territorial entities, the cause of which is the need to protect the interests and rights of the respective nations, peoples or ethnic groups.
In addition, it is possible to classify ethnic conflicts according to the priority goals formulated by the organizations of one of the parties, and, consequently, according to the possible consequences for the multiethnic society in which they develop. In this regard, they usually distinguish:
1. Socio-economic conflicts arising on the basis of demands for equalization of living standards, socio-professional composition and representation in the elite strata (from representatives of “lagging” ethnic groups) or the termination of benefits, subsidies and economic assistance to “others” (from members of “ leading" groups). They are a consequence of dissatisfaction with a particular nation that does not have its own statehood, with its legal status or with it in a truncated form.
2. Ethno-territorial conflicts, which, as a rule, have deep historical roots.
3. Ethno-demographic conflicts that arise where there is a real danger of erosion and dissolution of an ethnic group as a result of a rapid mechanical influx of a foreign-speaking population. The priority requirement in such cases becomes the protection of the rights of the indigenous nation, the introduction of various kinds of restrictions for “newcomers.”
According to the forms of manifestation, ethnic conflicts can be:
Violent (deportation, genocide, terror, pogroms and riots).
Non-violent (national movements, spontaneous marches, rallies, emigration), and in terms of time - long-term and short-term.
Ethnic conflicts are unique. They are a consequence of the collapse or disintegration of society, discrimination of one nation by another, violation of agreements, severance of social relations and ties between people. The causes of interethnic conflicts are the struggle for the distribution and redistribution of material and cultural values between ethnic groups and ethnic groups.
The initiators of an emerging ethnic conflict are always the leaders of ethnic communities (very often at the head of the national movement), pursuing the goal of changing the current situation in the interests of ensuring a more fair, from their point of view, consideration of the national interests of their people.
Psychology usually distinguishes several stages of ethnic conflict.
1. Contradictions that arise between national groups that have incompatible goals in the struggle for territory, power, prestige are called a conflict situation.
2. Existing social contradictions, although they play a decisive role among the causes of ethnic conflicts, do not always lead directly to the development of the latter. It is necessary for the opposing parties to realize the incompatibility of their interests and have appropriate motivation for behavior. This is the stage of awareness of the conflict situation.
3. If an objective conflict situation is recognized, even random events, due to the inherent emotionality and sometimes irrationality of interethnic relations, can lead to conflict interaction as the most acute stage. At this time, ethnic conflicts tend to self-expand or escalate, which can even lead to ethnopolitical wars.
4. Ethnic conflicts can flare up quickly and end immediately, or they can “smolder” for a very long time. In any case, at this time their last stage takes place, called settlement, or neutralization of the conflict.
The resolution of an ethnic conflict implies finding a new, compromise and acceptable balance of power for all its main participants in the multi-ethnic society where this conflict arose and developed in the form of political struggle.
Settlement in the full sense of the word is practically possible only in the event of conflicts for cultural and linguistic reasons, and even then only on the condition that demands on the part of, as a rule, an ethnic minority recognize its rights to a wider use of its language and cultural symbols in public places do not cause sharp rejection among the majority of local representatives
An important form of achieving agreement or ending a conflict between ethnic communities and their representatives is the conclusion of an interethnic compromise. It involves achieving mutual understanding or partial completion of an interethnic conflict through mutual concessions and coordination of interests (through their partial satisfaction). The model for ending an interethnic conflict in this way is used in conditions where its participants have equal opportunities in the absence of sufficient resources to fully satisfy the interests of one of the conflicting parties.
ETHNIC INTOLERANCE AND CONFLICTOLOGY OF INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS Irina Aleksandrovna Lapina, Associate Professor of the Department of History of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen lapina_ir@ inbox. ru
Project “Humanitarian Technologies in the Social Sphere” Ø Technologies for the formation of religious and ethnic Ø Ø Ø tolerance Technologies for psychological assistance in crisis and emergency situations Technologies for the prevention of deviation in the social environment Technologies for conflict resolution Technologies for adaptation of migrants Technologies for international communication in the field of education and science, etc.
Program “Tolerance in the Modern World” The goal is to prepare for the effective solution of professional pedagogical problems related to the problems of conflict, tolerant consciousness and behavior in a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional environment. Training modules of the program § § § Ethnic conflictology Tolerance as a socio-psychological phenomenon Religious tolerance Political tolerance Legal technologies for the formation of tolerance
ETHNIC CONFLICTOLOGY: course structure I. THEORY OF ETHNIC CONFLICT II. EMPIRES AND PEOPLES: HISTORY AND THEORIES OF NATIONALISM III. PHENOMENOLOGY OF ETHNIC CONFLICT Case study. 1. enocide-Holocaust-Shoah G 2. Caucasian War 3. Kosovo crisis 4... etc. IV. PRACTICAL ETHNOCONFLICTOLOGY: REGIONAL CONTEXT
Results of mastering the course on ethno-conflictology 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Understanding the destructive specifics of ethnic and religious conflicts, the causes of their occurrence, social structure and dynamics. Knowledge of classic examples of social conflicts on ethnic grounds and an idea of modern hotbeds of interethnic tension in the world and the country. Possession of skills in an analytical approach to ethnic conflicts, an understanding of ways to predict, prevent and resolve ethnic conflicts. An idea of modern social and pedagogical technologies for the formation of tolerant consciousness, used in different countries. Possession of modern means and methods for studying conflicts in educational activities. Possession of strategies of pedagogical behavior in situations of conflict interaction of hidden consequences and ethnic conflicts. Knowledge of information sources and institutional structures related to ethno-conflict issues, an understanding of the activities of state and public institutions aimed at organizing constructive interaction between various religious and ethnic groups
1. ETHNOCONFLICTOLOGY: SUBJECT FIELD, TASKS, METHODS 1. 1. General and ethnic conflictology: similarities and differences 1. 2. Classification of ethnic conflicts 1. 3. Structure of ethnic conflicts 1. 4. Conflict management
1. 1. General and ethnic conflictology: similarities and differences General theory of conflict XIX century: K. Marx, A. Small, L. Gumpilovic XX century: L. Couser, J. Rex, R. Dahrendorf, L. Kriesberg Social conflict is : – 1) open clash of social groups fighting for resources (L. Couser); 2) relations between parties who are confident that they have incompatible goals (L. Kriesberg) Subject (object) of the conflict: territory, economic resources, civil and political rights, power, cultural attitudes, information resources, basic values.
Ethnic conflictology The end. XX century: M. Banton, K. Deutsch, G. Kohn, D. Campbell, R. Segal, P. Shibutani, S. Enlow, E. Smith, E. Gellner, D. Horowitz, B. Anderson. V. A. Avksentyev, L. M. Drobizheva, E. A. Stepanov, Z. Sikevich, V. A. Tishkov, V. A. Shnirelman. Ethnicity (Greek) – people. Ethnicity - awareness of oneself as part of the people - an ethnic conflict in which at least one of the parties positions itself with ethnicity. Nation is a political community, co-citizenship Gromov I. A., Matskevich A. Yu., Semenov V. A. Western theoretical sociology. SPb. , 1996 Stepanov E. A. Modern conflictology. SPb. , 2006 Avksentyev V. A. Ethnic conflictology. Stavropol, 2003
The problem of ethnogenesis and ethnicity Scientific schools in cultural anthropology (ethnology) Ethnicity is a family that has grown over many generations (“primordialism”) Ethnicity is a cultural and historical community, enshrined in social memory, legal norms and traditions, the formation of an ethnic community is a regulated process (“ constructivism"); Ethnicity is an identity actualized for political purposes (“functionalism”); Scientific schools in ethno-conflictology: Evolutionist Ø Anthropological Ø Realistic Ø Socio-psychological Ø
Features of ethnic conflicts: - the presence of irrational motives; - complex nature; - complex dynamics; - destructive deployment scenarios
General theory of conflict Ethnoconflictology Subject Conflict as a social phenomenon Ethnic conflicts Methods Sociology Political science Law Psychology History Economics, etc. History Cult/anthropology Sociology Psychology Law Pedagogy, etc. Research paradigm Conflict - Ethnic natural conflicts can pose a social danger to the social and require the interaction of the rational
Functions of ethnic conflictology: specific historical study of ethnic conflicts and their typology; examination of the ethnic component of social conflicts; identifying conflict-generating factors and predicting their development; preventing, resolving or minimizing the negative consequences of ethnic conflicts
1. 2. Classification of ethnic conflicts According to the subject of the conflict: According to the composition (status) of participants: ethno-confessional interpersonal ethnopolitical intergroup ethnocultural interethnic economic ethnonational phantom interethnic By duration: long-term short-term By the nature of manifestation: evolutionary-spacing intensive sluggish By scale: local large-scale By means of struggle : peaceful armed
1. 3. Structure of ethnic conflicts. Sociological structure of the conflict Right to life X Z` Y Z``` Z``
1. 4. Conflict management Methods of influence Methods of resolving the incident political-legal economic psychological educational military-force consensus compromise separation prevention suppression
KEY CONCEPTS n ethnic intolerance, ethnicity, nation, ethnogenesis, contradiction, confrontation, conflict, conflict diagnosis, ethno-conflictological examination, cultural boundaries, value attitudes, conflict structure, structural analysis, sociological structure of the conflict, subjects of the conflict, subject of the conflict, zone of disagreement, inter-role conflict , dynamic structure of conflict, diachronic method, synchronous method, participant observation method, latent stage of conflict, escalation, climax, incident, conflict resolution, post-conflict stage, conflict situation, conflict management, destructive technologies, constructive technologies, compromise, separation, consensus, preventive measures , de-escalation, institutionalization of conflict, conflict-generating factors, monitoring, consulting.
LITERATURE Avksentyev A. Ethical conflictology At 2 o'clock. Stavropol, V. . 2001 -2003 Aklaev A. R. Ethnopolitical conflictology. Analysis and management. M., 2006 Barth F. (ed.) Ethnic groups and social boundaries. Social organization of cultural differences. M., 2006 (slo, 1969) O Gromov I. A., Matskevich A. Yu., Semenov V. A. Western theoretical sociology. SPb. , 1996 Dahrendorf R. Paths from Utopia M., 2002 Couser L. Functions of social conflict. M., 2000 Social conflicts: examination, forecasting, resolution technology. Vol. 18: Ethnic and regional conflictology. – Moscow-Stavropol, 200 Stepanov E.I. Modern conflictology. SPb. , 2006 Tishkov. V. A. Requiem for Ethnicity. Social studies in cultural anthropology. M., 2003
2. EMPIRES AND PEOPLES: HISTORY AND THEORIES OF NATIONALISM 2. 1. Empires and the “national question” 2. 2. Awakening of nationalism 2. 3. Types and forms of nationalism 2. 4. Theory of mobilization
2. 1. Empires and the “national question” Signs of an empire as a historical form of state: vastness of territory; q multi-ethnic and multi-confessional population; q political and cultural dominance of the state-forming people; q centralization of management q
Acculturation strategies (Theory of J. Berry ACCULTURATION Assimilation Separation Integration Marginalization Instruments of assimilation: state language, state religion, state law
Ways of territorial distribution of ethnic minorities “National outskirts” Ø Enclaves Ø Diasporas Ø Extraterritorial peoples Ø “National question” is the question of the relationship between an ethnic minority and an ethnic majority. Discrimination, infringement of rights, legal – inequality
The number of all-Russian and national parties in 1905 -1917, S. -d Neonarodnich. Liberburg. Monarch. Total All-Russian 1 5 25 10 41 National 29 32 52 - 113 Ø Ø Ways to resolve the “national question” in the programs of Russian political parties: Sovereignty Territorial-national autonomy Federal structure Cultural-national autonomy
2. 3. Theories of nationalism Nationalism is a political ideology - 1) a system of ideas, the central of which is the idea of the value of the nation as the highest form of social unity and its primacy in the state-forming process 2) a system of ideas based on the desire for the political realization of collective ethnic identity with the help of the state. Forms of implementation of nationalism n n n Liberalism Patriotism Separatism Ethno-isolationism Chauvinism Nazism
Modern types of nationalism 1. State-building 2. State-oriented: - “nationalizing” nationalism; - nationalism of the external historical homeland; - nationalism of ethnic minorities; - national-populist nationalism. (R. Brubaker. Myths and misconceptions in the study of nationalism // Imperi. 2000. No. 1, 2) Ab o
The relationship between ethnicity and nationality in theories of nationalism. The psychological basis of nationalism is ethnocentrism. What importance does the following have in the formation of ethnocentric consciousness: - national/ethnic territory (homeland)? - national/ethnic culture? - national/ethnic traditions? 1. Primordialist essentialism Authentic territory. Traditional culture. Nation = ethnicity - “community of blood and soil” (I. G. Herder) Ethnonationalism.
2. Constructivist modernism Territory is the seat of power. “National culture”, “national tradition”, the basis of the legitimation mechanism. Nation = co-citizenship = constructed unity. Civic nationalism. “Nationalism is not at all what it seems, and, above all, to itself. The cultures he demands to protect and revive are often his own inventions, or altered beyond recognition." (E. Gellner Stages of ethnic mobilization (development of nationalism): 1) increased attention to the origins of culture: history, the language of poetry, folklore; 2) the formation of a system of ideas that substantiate collective claims; 3) a mass political movement for the implementation of ideas. Historical ideologemes as a way of justifying territorial claims: - precedence - continuity - justice / injustice
3. Ethnic symbolism Territory (“homeland”), culture, traditions are the symbolic basis of nationalism, which has a basis in reality. “The symbolic elements of a nation, its myths, values, traditions, emotionally charged territory - the “homeland” - are man-made phenomena. However, they are amenable to transformation only to a very limited extent, representing a part of mythological and symbolic complexes of great duration, dating back to the ancient times of the formation of the ethnic cores of modern nations. They are symbolic reservoirs from which nationalists draw material for nation-building. Leaders of national movements and intellectuals seeking their identity selectively use elements from this reservoir, reinterpreting and reconstructing them." E. Smith. Nationalism and modernism. A critical review of modern theories of nationalism. M., 2004 Nationalism in world history / Ed. V. A. Tishkova, V. A. Shnirelman. M., 2007) P. Meilekhs. Giving the “homeland” its due. Experience of empirical-symbolic research of Meskhetian Turks in central Russia: www. cisr. ru/files/publ/Meylakhs_Ab. I_Homeland. pdf
KEY CONCEPTS empire, national outskirts, enclaves, extraterritorial peoples, unitarism, ethnic hierarchy, “national question”, acculturation, assimilation, separation, integration, marginalization, ethnic identity, ethnocentrism, xenophobia, nationalism, sovereignty, federation, territorial autonomy, cultural-national (personal) autonomy, ideology, ethnogenetic myth, liberalism, patriotism, separatism, extremism, chauvinism, racism, ethnocide, mobilization of ethnicity, phantom conflicts, manipulation of ethnic consciousness
LITERATURE Amelin V.V. Challenges of mobilized ethnicity. M., 1997 Anderson B. Imagined communities. Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism. 2001 M., Balibar E., Wallerstein I. Race. Nation. Class. Ambiguous identities. M., 2003 Berger P., Lukman T. Social construction of reality. M. . 1995 Berry J, Poortinga A, Segall M, Dasen Cross-cultural. P psychology. Kharkov, 2007 Gellner E. Nations and nationalism. M., 1981 German nationalism / Comp. V. Prussakov. M., 1994 Gradirovsky S. gathering lands to gather peoples. From Ethnic factor in nation-building // www. polit. ru/research/ Nationalism in world history /Ed. V. A. Tishkov and V. A. Shnirelman. M., 2007
3. PHENOMENOLOGY OF ETHNIC CONFLICT Technology Case study analysis of examples “ ”: Didactic requirements for the selection of examples historical “detachment”; distinctness of the genetic and sociological structure of the conflict; availability of sources; methodological elaboration; features of the educational program
Case study 1: Genocide - Holocaust - Shoah Main content: A brief history of the Jewish people. Traditional culture. Jewish diaspora in Europe. Christian anti-Semitism. Enlightenment and anti-Semitism of modern times. Neo-romanticism is a problem of cultural and crisis. Racist anti-Semitism in Western Europe. Germanic in neo-paganism and the ideology of “folk”. Anti-Semitism in Russia. National movements in Europe and Zionism. State anti-Semitism of the Third Reich. The catastrophe of the Jewish population in Europe during the Second World War. Features of the Holocaust on the territory of the USSR. Problems of Resistance to Nazism. The trial of fascism. Sources historiography. Reflection of the Holocaust in literature and art. Holocaust archives and museums around the world. Contemporary problems in the history of the Holocaust.
History of anti-Semitism Nuremberg trials, denazification The defeat of Nazi Germany The Holocaust Nazi anti-Semitism Anti-Semitism of modern times Christian anti-Semitism Anti-Semitism in the ancient world
BIBLE Old Testament (Ta.N.H) Pentateuch Prophets (Chumash) -Torah (Neviim) Genesis (Breishit) 9 books of history Exodus (Shemot) Leviticus (Vayikra) Numbers (Bemidbar) Deuteronomy (Dvarim) Scriptures (Ketuvim) Ezra Nehemiah Chronicles Theodicy Poetry New Testament Gospels Mark Matthew Luke John Apostles Acts and Epistles (Peter 3, Paul 14, John 3, Jude 1)
Christian anti-Semitism (Middle Ages) JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY: GENERAL AND SPECIFIC Basic questions Sacred books The essence of the doctrine: - interpretation of God - interpretation of the Messiah - ethical concept (Law) Organization of a religious community: - boundaries of the community - political concept - organization of relationships Ritual system: - sacrifice - religious purity - calendar and holidays Judaism Christianity
Allegedly desecration of the host by Jews. Window of the Gothic St. Michael's Cathedral in Brussels. (From: Fifty Questions on Antisemitism. Ed. by Anne Frank House, Amsterdam 2005, S. 57) “Desecration of the Host.” Window of St. Michael's Cathedral in Brussels.
Persecution of Jews in medieval Europe 1095 – Council of Clermont; Pope Urban's call to Crusade II; 1096 – First Crusade; the defeat of the Jewish quarter of Worms; 1099 – destruction of the Jewish quarter in Jerusalem; 1147 - message from Pierre from Cluny on the eve of the second crusade; 1215 - burning of the Talmud and other Jewish books in Paris; 1290 - expulsion of Jews from England; 1305; 1394 – expulsion from France; 1348 – massacres of Jews during the plague epidemic; 1481 - 1808 – Spanish Inquisition; 1491 – expulsion from Austria; 1492 - expulsion from Spain; 1497 – expulsion from Portugal; 1542 - “8 demands against the Jews” by M. Luther; 1555 – Pope Paul’s bull on the formation of the ghetto, etc. IV
Antisemitism of modern times Reasons for the growth of antisemitism in the “Age of Knowledge” Economic competition Growing trust in scientific theories The collapse of empires and the formation of nation states The search for cultural identity The competitiveness of Jews in the information sphere
F. Nietzsche. Anti-Christian “... 2. What is good? - Everything that increases a person’s sense of strength, the will to power, and power. What's wrong? - Everything that comes from weakness. What is happiness? - A feeling of increasing strength, power, a feeling that a new obstacle has been overcome. Not to be satisfied, no, - more power, more power! Not peace - war; not virtue, but valor (virtue in the Renaissance style, virtu - without any admixture of morality). Let the weak and ugly perish - the first commandment of our love for mankind. We must also help them die. What is more harmful than any vice? Have compassion for the weak and crippled. 3. The problem that I pose is not who will replace man in the ranks of living beings (man is the end), but what type of man should be cultivated, which is the most highly valuable, more worthy of life than others, which belongs to the future. Such a highly valuable type often existed on earth in the past - but as a happy, exceptional case and never according to will. On the contrary, he was feared most of all, he rather inspired horror, and fear made one desire, cultivate and breed the opposite of him - a domestic, herd animal, a sick human animal - a Christian ... "
State anti-Semitism c. Reich III Nuremberg Laws Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor September 15, 1935 § 1. Marriages of Jews with citizens of German or similar blood are prohibited. Marriages entered into contrary to the law are invalid, even if they are registered abroad in order to circumvent the law. An already concluded marriage can be canceled only at the request of the prosecutor. § 2. Extramarital affairs between Jews and citizens of German or similar blood are prohibited § 3. Jews are not allowed to hire servants under 45 years of age from female citizens of German or similar blood. § 4. Jews are prohibited from raising the flags of the Reich and the states, and using the colors of the state flag. Instead, they are allowed to use the colors of Jewish symbols. This right of theirs is protected by the state. § 5. Violation of the prohibition indicated in § 1 is punishable by forced labor. Violation of the prohibition indicated in § 2 is punishable by imprisonment or forced labor. Violation of the prohibition referred to in § 3 and § 4 entails imprisonment for up to one year and a fine or one of these penalties...
Agreement on Socialist Competition // “Scissors and Iron”. Factory circulation of the Profintern garment factory (Vitebsk). September 18, 1930 “I, a schoolboy of the 6th Belarusian school, 2nd grade, Isaac Nudelman, pioneer of the 72nd detachment of the garment base, challenge my father, a worker of the 2nd jacket shop of Motel Nudelman, to a social competition, and conclude an agreement with him. I, a pioneer, undertake to always study well, not be late for lessons, and also in the detachment to fulfill all the duties assigned to me, to be a good, exemplary pioneer, and to my father - never to be absentee and to be an exemplary worker, not to make mistakes, to fulfill the five-year plan in four years. And also to our Pioneer leader Tsirlin, who works at a garment factory, more demons and explanations to the Pioneers, and also carefully fulfill the duties of the factory, have no absenteeism, fulfill the five-year plan in four years. I sign up for a “Five-Year Plan in Four Years” loan in the amount of 25 rubles. and I call all the children whose parents work at the factory. n Pioneer Isaac Nudelman I, a worker at Motel Nudelman, in response to the challenge of my son, pledge to stay at the factory until the end of the five-year period.” Motel Nudelman" n
Protocol of interrogation of a witness (GARF, f. 7021, op. 69, d. 343, l. 1-5) “October 1943, 11 days. The assistant to the military prosecutor of military unit No. 16651, Captain of Justice Alekseev, interrogated the undersigned as a witness, who, having been warned about the liability of giving false testimony under Art. for 95 Criminal Code, testified: Lyarskaya Maria Savelyevna, b. 1910, native of Liozno, Vitebsk region. , living there on Dachnaya (Kolkhoznaya) street. 30, b/p. Didn't sue. In essence, she testified: “During the occupation of Liozno by the Germans, I remained in the town where I live to this day. The Germans occupied our town in the summer of 1941. The police were immediately organized. The first to join the police were Lev Kovalsky, Konstantin Turkov, Daniil Savitsky, Seleznev (one-armed), Mikhail Karavaev, Druchkin and others. In February 1942, atrocities began. They gathered all the Jews, took them to Adaminsky Garden and shot them there: old people, women and children. Those who were shot were thrown into a ditch and buried. The police drove our population out to bury the corpses. They buried it for a whole month, because the ground was frozen. My husband also went to bury (he is now drafted into the army). He said that there were a lot of corpses, among them old people, women, and children. Residents of the area adjacent to the ditch said that they could not take water from the river because blood was oozing down the ditch. The police shot Turkov, Karavaev, Savitsky, Khrulev. Turkov was especially bloodthirsty. He himself said that about 500 people were shot. There were many Jews in our town. Turkov lived not far from me, in house No. 28, and I saw him every day. Drunk, and he was drunk every day, he said that the children were thrown into a pit alive. One woman is a teacher. Tolochankina remained alive. Turkov went and killed her the next day. He talked about it himself. Turkov’s wife, Okuneva Evdokia, remained here in the town. While shooting Jews, the police robbed them and took their property for themselves. I saw how Turkov, after the shootings, brought things home to Okuneva. My neighbor Gukova told me that she saw Okuneva carrying a coat taken by Turkov from the woman he killed to the river to wash...”
Features of the Holocaust on the territory of the USSR Placing blame on Jews for supporting the communist regime; q Particular cruelty in the process of mass destruction of civilians; q Collaboration of the local population; q Silence by the Soviet authorities of the mass extermination of Soviet citizens on ethnic grounds q
KEY CONCEPTS Judaism, Jewish tradition, Jewish diaspora, Ashkenazim, Sephardim, Christianity, anti-Semitism, blood libel, decals, deportation, Marranism, ghetto, Pale of Settlement, Hasidism, Haskalah, reformism, anti-Semitism, asemitism, racism, Germanic neo-paganism, fascism , Nuremberg Laws, Nazism, Kristallnacht, occupation regime, Einsatzgruppen, Wannsee Conference, death camps, collaborationism, Nuremberg Trials, genocide, Holocaust, Shoah, Righteous Among the Nations.
LITERATURE Abramskaya I. Standing aside, or standing nearby. Jerusalem, 2006 Altman. I. A. Victims of hatred. Holocaust territory. USSR 19411945. M., 2003 Gessen Yu. I. History of the Jewish people in Russia. M., 1993 Telushkin. I. Jewish World The most important knowledge about the Jewish people, their history and religion. Jerusalem-Moscow, 1998 Holocaust and Jewish resistance to the occupied territory of the USSR. Uch. allowance / Comp. I. A. Altman. M., 2002 Black book. The extermination of the Jews of the USSR during the years of German occupation (1941 -1945). Collection of documents and materials. Your Poison. Jerusalem - Moscow, 1992 Internet resources - Institute of Visual History and Education of the University of Southern California (Los Angeles): www. usc. edu/vhi - Institute for Holocaust Studies and Yad Vashem (Jerusalem): www. yadvashem. org/hp_rus. htm - Russian Scientific and Educational Center "Holocaust" (Moscow): www. holofond. ru - Electronic Jewish encyclopedia: www/eleven. co. il
4. ETHNIC CONFLICTOLOGY IN THE REGIONAL CONTEXT 4. 1. Conflictology of interethnic relations and migration studies 4. 2. Problems of diaspora 4. 3. Countering extremism 4. 4. Ethno-conflict monitoring
4. 1. Conflictology of interethnic relations and migrationology Globalization is the process of increasing the interdependence of countries and peoples of the world Migration - displacement Emigration - eviction outside the borders of a state Immigration - settling within the borders of a state Diffusion - gradual, spontaneous penetration Anthropostructure sociocultural structure - host or the releasing environment Anthropic flow a) that which transforms (or deforms) the anthropostructure; b) what gives it vital energy Modern principles of studying ethnic migration: systematicity, interdisciplinarity, structural-functional analysis, differentiated approach
Rationalization of attitudes towards migration processes Approaches to the analysis of migration processes through the prism of various disciplines History Research questions Levels/units of analysis Examples of hypotheses Modeling. behavior of migrants Anthropol Democracy graphy Economics Political science Law Sociology Ethnoconflictology
Structural and logical diagram of the analysis of migration processes Migration process - Spheres of influence: labor sphere political sphere social sphere cultural-spiritual sphere - Levels of analysis: societal regional local individual
Types of migration Depending on the presence of external threats a) voluntary b) forced Depending on the motivation of the decision a) voluntary b) forced Depending on the type of borders crossed: a) external b) internal Depending on time parameters a) irrevocable b) temporary : seasonal, pendulum, contractual Depending on the assistance from Depending on the status of the parties to the state - refugees and asylum seekers a) organized asylum b) unorganized - permanent settlers - registered labor migrants - illegal migrants
Problems of state legal regulation of migration - The purpose of migration policy is the impact of the state on: the formation of a desired migration regime of the population, the dynamics of numbers (maintenance, or change in trends, the structure of various categories of migrants, the pace of emigration and immigration, the qualitative characteristics of the population. Areas of state migration policy Legislative Law enforcement Human rights
Factors influencing legislative activity 1. International legal standards (trend - unification in accordance with international legal standards - UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees 1951 - Common position of the European Union countries on the harmonized application of the definition of refugee status 1996 (restrictive approach ) 2. Values of national-state policy (taking into account the needs of socio-economic and demographic development of society). New migration legislation is based on the purpose of stay - education, work, immigration of a dependent to a breadwinner, humanitarian reasons.
Reasons for the aggravation of the problems of regulating migration processes in Russia 1. Open borders with neighboring countries, lack of a visa regime and unsettled legislation within the CIS to combat illegal emigration 2. Lack of a legal framework adequate to the new Russian realities for regulating: a) volumes of immigration (quotas) b ) the stay of foreign citizens and stateless persons on the territory of the country c) their legal expulsion, or integration into Russian society
Federal laws “On the state border of the Russian Federation” dated April 1, 1993 “On forced migrants dated February 19, 1993 No. 4528-1 (effective as amended in 2000) “On refugees” dated February 19, 1993 (effective as amended 2000) “On the procedure for leaving the Russian Federation and entering the Russian Federation”, ed. dated June 24, 1994 “On citizenship of the Russian Federation” dated May 31, 2002 On the right of citizens of the Russian Federation to freedom of movement, choice of place of residence within the Russian Federation on July 25, 2002 No. 5242 -1 On the legal status of foreign citizens in territory of the Russian Federation dated July 25, 2002 No. 115 -FZ On migration registration of foreign citizens and stateless persons of the Russian Federation July 18, 2007 No. 109 -FZ Presidential Decrees Decree of the President of the Russian Federation “On the attraction and use of foreign labor in the Russian Federation” dated 12/16/1993 “On additional measures to streamline the attraction and use of foreign labor in the Russian Federation” dated 04/29/1994 Development of the concept of migration policy Program for the main directions of migration policy and the Concept of regulating migration processes in the Russian Federation (approved by Government Order dated March 1, 2003 No. 256 -r)
4. 2. Problems of diaspora Features of the diaspora as a social phenomenon: real and symbolic connection with the metropolis and mutual influence; Ø availability of “community” capital; Ø uncertainty of borders (in addition to resettled migrants, there is pendulum and seasonal migration); Ø the presence of linguistic and psychological barriers separating representatives of the diaspora from the surrounding majority Ø
Types of adaptation of migrants § § § Adaptation of the population Adaptation to society Adaptation to structures and systems to the ethnic colony to the life orientations of the local to forms of participation in civil matters in personal matters The procedural side of adaptation Cognitive element (recognition of the situation, learning new patterns of behavior) Ø Psychological reorientation (acceptance of accepted in a given environment of behavior criteria) Ø
Conflict-producing consequences of intensive ethnic migrations for host societies n n n n the growth of multi-ethnicity of host communities, the emergence of new and the growth of existing diasporas; achieving a high level of diaspora saturation, the transition of ethnic dispersion into the emergence of enclaves; development of competitive ethnic entrepreneurship; the emergence and development of ethnic criminalization; migrantophobia; growth of interethnic tension in interpersonal and intergroup relations; increase in the frequency and severity of domestic and also the scale of social interethnic conflicts
Strategies of interaction between the host society and ethnic migration Monoculturalism (“salvation of the nation”) - Encouragement of fertility - Sharp limitation of migration - Deportation of illegal migrants P. Buchanan. Death of the West. How population extinction and the invasion of immigrants threaten our country and civilization. 2000. Multiculturalism Multiculturalism Providing Integration strategy: maintaining equal status of cultural (parity) and equal traditions of opportunities for all ethnic migrants of the society and mastering cultural heritage pluralism. of all accepted peoples. Smorgunova V. Yu. Theories of American multiculturalism and problems of civic development. society // Measuring social tension: theory, methodology and research techniques. SPb. , 2002; Education and interethnic relations: theory and practice of multicultural education. Izhevsk, 2009
LITERATURE Vitkovskaya G. Caucasian migrants in Russia: assessment and factors of adaptation, attitude of the local population antropotok. archipelag. ru/text /ad 03/htm; International legal aspects of modern migration processes Sat. art. / Ed. . N. Baranov V.N. Novgorod, 2004 Mukomel V. Russian discourses on migration // Bulletin of public opinion. 2005. No. 1: www. polit. ru/research/2005/07/08/mukomel. html Mukomel V.I. Migration policy in Russia: post-Soviet context M., 2005 Legal framework and implementation of the State program to promote the voluntary resettlement of compatriots living abroad to the Russian Federation. M., 2007 Regulatory legal acts regulating migration processes Sat. doc. M., 2005 Fundamentals of migration policy. (Ed. I. N. Bartsits). M., 2008 Public international law. Sat. doc. In 2 parts. M., 2006 Problems of legal regulation of interethnic relations and anti-discrimination legislation of the Russian Federation. M German-Russian exchange, 2004 Yudina T. N. Sociology of migration. M., 2006
4. 3. Countering extremism Extremism from lat. extremus – extreme) – (1) illegal ousting of opponents from the social environment; 2) aggressive illegal actions in the presence of malicious intent or meaning. Nationalist extremism is illegal actions against individuals and groups of individuals on ethnic and racial grounds. Causes of extremism: Ø Ø Ø social disorientation of citizens; ineffective legal system; unfair distribution system; insufficient level of education; weakness of institutions of public control.
The ethnic composition of the population of St. Petersburg according to the 2002 census is 4 million 661 thousand people, representatives of 138 ethnic groups and nationalities. Russians make up 84.7% of them. Among the most numerous representatives of other peoples are Ukrainians (87.1 thousand - 1.9%), Belarusians (54 thousand - 1.2%), Jews (36.6 thousand - 0.8%), Tatars (35 , 6 thousand - 0.8%), Azerbaijanis (16.6 thousand - 0.36%), Armenians (19.2 thousand - 0.4%), Georgians (10.1 thousand - 0.2 %), Chuvash (60070. 13%), Poles (4451 - 0.10%), Finns (3980 - 0.09%), Koreans (3908 - 0.08%), Germans (3868 - 0.08%) and others. Among the small ethnic groups are Vepsians (318.0.0068%), Nenets (192.00.41%), Evenks (140.0.0030%), Khanty (103.0.225%), Chukchi (102 , 0.0022%) etc.
Methods of state-legal counteraction to nationalist extremism Ø Ø Ø Improving the legal system Improving the social protection system Balanced migration policy Creating prerequisites for realizing the cultural needs of various social and age groups Ensuring the proper level and quality of education for citizens
Methods of public counteraction to nationalist extremism: q q q public censure and denial of publicity; education on the history of racial and ethnic crimes and genocides; identifying situations of cultural misunderstanding in the behavior of representatives of different ethnic groups, intercultural and cross-cultural education (“recognizing” a friend and searching for common cultural values); psychological and pedagogical assistance and prevention; incorporation (inclusion) of non-systemic extremists into a more civilized environment; public monitoring of extremism, its prevention and neutralization at the grassroots level.
4. 4. Ethno-conflictological monitoring § § Possibilities of ethno-conflictological monitoring: tracking general and specific features of various inter-ethnic conflicts (in a region, in a district, in a collective) diagnostics; prognostics; development of effective measures of influence. Bulletin of the network of ethnological monitoring and early warning of conflicts. M., RAAN, 1993 -2011
Conceptual justification for the monitoring program Indicators Demography and migration: structure of the diaspora, nature of the settlement, mixed marriages, etc. Economy and social sphere: division of labor, employment, state of social services. security, etc. Culture, education, information: religious life, language situation, calendar, traditional holidays and rituals. Symptoms of social tension: language of communication, discontent, complaints, excesses. Stages of monitoring § § definition of tasks (selection of certain aspects of analysis - conflict-generating factors) identification of sources of information identification of those operations through which this can be done justification of possible actions to neutralize or resolve
KEY CONCEPTS social mobility, migrationology, immigration, emigration, diffusion, anthropostructure, anthropoflow, structural-functional analysis, labor migration, settlement migration, commuting migration, seasonal migration, repatriation, depopulation, demographic crisis, conflict factors, diaspora, migrant phobia, migration policy, ecology of culture , latent conflict, extremism, nationalist extremism, ethno-conflict monitoring, indicators of social tension, consulting, logic of preventive action, public initiative, social partnership
LITERATURE Avksentyev V. A., Gritsenko G. D., Dmitriev A. V. Regional conflictology: expert opinion. M., 2007 Ailamazyan V.B., Osipov A.G. et al. Legal mechanisms for countering discrimination and inciting ethnic hatred in Russia. M., 2002 Antsupov A. Ya. Prevention of conflicts in the school community M., 200 Gilinsky Y. Deviance of adolescents. SPb. , 2001 Zubok Yu. A., Chuprov V. I. Youth extremism: essence, forms, manifestations and trends. M., 2009 Kleiberg Yu. A. Psychology of deviant behavior. M., 2001 Kozhevnikova G. Radical nationalism in Russia and counteraction to it in 2009 http: //www. polit. ru/research/2004/10/21/hate_speech 1. html Krasikov V.I. Extremism. Patterns and forms. M., 2009 Lebedeva N. M. Social psychology of ethnic migrations. M., 1993 Migration and security in Russia / Ed. G. Vitkovskaya and S. Panarin M., 2000 Informal youth communities of St. Petersburg: theory, practice and methods of preventing extremism / ed. A. A. Kozlova and V. A. Kanayan. SPb. , 2008
Education and interethnic relations: theory and practice of multicultural education. Izhevsk, 2009 St. Petersburg - our common home / Ed. T. M. Smirnova / Scientific Center “Petropol. SPb. , 2007 Platonov Yu. P. Psychology of conflict behavior. SPb. , 2009 Payne M. Social work: modern theory. M., 2007 The reality of the ethnic group. Materials of the annual scientific and practical conference / RGPU named after. A. I. Herzen. SPb. , 2000 -2011 Religions of St. Petersburg. Historical and cultural atlas/RGPU named after. A. I. Herzen. SPb. , 2002 North Caucasus. Household traditions in the century / Rep. ed. V. A. XX Tishkov, S. V. Cheshko. 1996 M., Stepanov E. A. Regional conflicts: modeling, monitoring, management. M., 2003 Stefanenko T. G. Ethnopsychology. M., 2007 Tishkov V. A. Ethnological monitoring and early warning of conflicts. M., 2007 Shnirelman V. A. New racism. M., 2011
INTERNET RESOURCES § § § § § European Commission against Racism: www. ecri. coe. int Library named after. V.V. Mayakovsky. Program “Tolerance St. Petersburg aspect: http: //www. pl. spb. ru/projects/tolerance/ State and anthropoflow. Center for Strategic Research of the Volga Federal District: antropotok. archipelag. ru Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology RAS: www. iea. ras. ru Calendar of holidays of the peoples of the world: www. calend. ru/holidays Moscow Helsinki Group: www. mhg. ru Human rights in Russia: http: // hro. org/node/5220 Portal of national communities of the State Institution House of Nationalities (St. Petersburg): www. ethnosite. ru Program of the Government of St. Petersburg “Tolerance”: http: //spbtolerance. ru/archives/3368#more-3368
§ § § Program of fundamental research of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences “Adaptation of peoples and cultures to changes in the natural environment. Social and technogenic transformations": adaptation. iea. ras. ru Portal “Human Rights in Russia”: www. hro. org/ngo/ Russian Ethnographic Museum (St. Petersburg): www. ethnomuseum. ru Ethnological Monitoring and Early Warning of Conflict Network (EAWARN): http: //www. eawarn. ru Center for Conflictology IS RAS: conflictolog. ru 1 Center "Sova": xeno. sova-center. ru/213716 E/21728 E 3
TASKS FOR FINAL CERTIFICATION Pedagogical design § Ethno-conflictological monitoring § Ethno-conflictological research (historical, sociological, cultural, etc.) §
Pedagogical design § § § Development of scenarios for educational activities Design of individual work with schoolchildren Development of models and modules for lessons in history, local history, social studies, law, MHC, etc. Development of training course programs for history, local history, social studies, law, MHC Design of educational programs for multi-ethnic and national schools and ethnocultural centers
“...There is no other way than to agree with the need to live together under conditions of equality and legality” J. Art. Mill in
Introduction
CHAPTER I. REGIONAL CONFLICTOLOGY: SYNTHESIS OF CONFLICTOLOGICAL AND REGIONOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 16
1.1. Modern trends in the study of social conflicts 16
1.2.Globalization, regionalization and federalism in the context of conflictological knowledge 35
1.3. Ethnic conflictology as one of the leading areas of socio-political research in multi-ethnic regions 58
CHAPTER II. TECHNOLOGIZATION OF ETHNOCONFLICTOLOGICAL RESEARCH AT THE REGIONAL LEVEL 80
2.1. Basic principles of monitoring, modeling and management of ethnore-regional conflicts 80
2.2. Regional model of conflict processes in a multi-ethnic region (based on materials from the Karachay-Cherkess Republic) 103
2.3. Experience in resolving ethno-political conflict and prospects for managing ethno-conflict processes in Karachay-Cherkessia 133
CONCLUSION 156
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF USED LITERATURE 165
Introduction to the work
Relevance of the research topic. The development of domestic conflictology as an integral part of world conflictology science is currently inextricably linked with the global process of globalization and the processes of federalism and regionalization that are relevant for Russia. The problem of the relationship between regionalism and federalism is especially relevant for Russia, which is trying to build balanced federal relations in a vast space of regions that are heterogeneous in both ethnic, natural-geographical and socio-economic aspects.
In this regard, one of the main tasks of socio-political sciences in modern Russia is the study of the entire complex and interconnection of regional problems, the manifestation of global and national trends and local features in them. The specifics of regional conflict, its qualitative certainty, are also determined by the specifics of the region. The study of these processes actualizes the transfer of conflict studies from the general social to the regional level, both in terms of the transition from the general theoretical aspect of conflict modeling to their specific conceptual aspect, and in terms of improving political technologies for their prevention and resolution.
The study of conflict relations between ethnic groups, the level of tension in them, and objective factors that enhance this conflict leads to the need to develop ethnic conflictology from a regional perspective. The principles of regionalism, based on revealing the multifactorial nature of any social phenomenon, taking into account the specific characteristics of a territorially organized society, organically fit into the cross-scientific analysis of ethnic conflicts. The development of ethnic conflictology in the regions is also associated with its subjective component: the established community of social scientists (ethnographers, sociologists, political scientists, etc.) engaged in both ethnological and conflictological research. The task of this
4 groups of scientists not only analyze and theoretically generalize existing problems, but also develop specific proposals for solving them for power structures in the regions, as well as the formation of policies that meet the needs of both the state and society as a whole, and ethnic communities at the federal and regional levels.
Due to these circumstances, there is a need to develop technological sections of ethnic conflictology from a regional perspective, which makes this issue relevant. The most important task in this regard is the organization of monitoring, modeling and management of regional ethnic conflicts, on the basis of which it will be possible to develop principles, methods and forms of implementation of such a national policy (primarily by government bodies and administrative structures), which will ensure effective interaction between the ethnic groups that make up the population of the region communities, stabilizes the situation in it.
Due to the above reasons, the development of problems of ethnic conflictology in the regional aspect is of both theoretical and practical interest, which was the reason for turning to the study of the stated topic.
The degree of scientific development of the problem. The origin of conflictology is associated with the middle of the 20th century; the foundations of the general theory of conflict and ethnic conflictology were laid by Western scientists. Previously, within the framework of various concepts of social development, a general theory of conflict was being developed in the works of M. Weber, E. Durkheim, G. Simmel, K. Marx, T. Parsons 1 . The classics of conflictology K. Boulding, I. Galtung, R. Dahrendorf, L. Koser, L. Kriesberg placed conflict as a social
1 Weber M. On the categories of understanding sociology. Selected works. - M.: Nauka, 1990; Weber M. Politics as a profession. Ibid; Durkheim E. On the division of social labor. - O., 1900; Simmel G. Conflict// Izbr., in 2 vols.: trans. with him. - M.: Nauka, 1996.; Marx K. June Revolution // Marx K, Engels F. Works, ed. 2.- M.: Politizdat, 1955. - T.5; Marx K., Engels F. Manifesto of the Communist Party // Marx K., Engels F. Soch., ed. 2. - M.: Politizdat, 1955. - T.4. - pp. 419-459; Parsons T. The Structure of Social Action. -N. Y., 1937.
5 this phenomenon and moved away from the methodology of structural-functional analysis, within the framework of which the conflict was interpreted as social dysfunction. 1 Intensive research in the field of resolution and prevention of social conflicts since the 1980s. led by J. Burton and his followers. Methodological and technological problems of conflictology are analyzed in the works of X. Cornelius and S. Fair, R. Fischer and W. Urey. 3
The formation of domestic conflictology occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s; since that time, there has been active development of theoretical and methodological approaches to the analysis of social conflicts, applied research has been carried out, and numerous research projects have been implemented. The works of A.Ya. are devoted to the development of general theoretical, ideological and methodological problems of conflictology. Antsupova, A.V. Dmitriev, A.V. Glukhova, Yu.G. Zaprudsky, A.G. Zdravomyslova, P.I. Kukonkova, V.N. Kudryavtseva, SV. Kudryavtseva, E.I. Stepanova, A.N. Chumikova et al. 4 In the works of A.Ya. Antsupova, P.I. Kukonkova, E.I. Stepanova et al. 5 also consider methodological and technological problems; mechanisms for diagnosing conflicts, us-
I Boulding K. Conflict and Defens. - N.Y., 1988. XIV; Galtung J. Violence, peace and peace re
search. In: Journal of Peak Research. -1969. - Vol. 6. - No. 3; Darendorf R. Class and Class Conflict
in Industrial Society. - Stanford, 1959; Dahrendorf P. Elements of the theory of social conflict
II Sociological research.-1994.-No. 5; Koser L. Fundamentals of conflictology. Educational
sobie. - St. Petersburg: “Firefly”, 1999; Krisberg L. Sociology of Social Conflict. - New
Jersey, 1973. XIV; Krisberg L. World creation, peace preservation and conflict resolution;; //
Sociological research.-1990. - No. 11.
The nature of conflict and the theory of human needs. (Summary abstract) // Social conflict: modern research. - M.: INION, 1991.
3 Burton D. Decree. slave.; Cornelius X., Fair S. Everyone can win. - M.: Nauka, 1992; Fischer R., Yuri U. The path to agreement, or negotiations without defeat. Per. from English - M: Science, 1992.
4 Antsupov A.Ya., Shipilov A.I. Conflictology: theory, history, bibliography. - M., 1996; Dmitriev A.V., Kudryavtsev V.N., Kudryavtsev S.V. Introduction to the general theory of conflicts. - M.: MAEP, 1993; Glukhova A.V. Typology of political conflicts. - Voronezh, 1997; Zaprudsky Yu.G. Social conflict ((political science analysis). - Rostov-on-Don: RSU Publishing House, 1992; Zdravomyslov A.G. Study of conflict at the macro level. Theoretical prerequisites. - Nizhny Novgorod: Volgo-Vyatka Publishing Center Publishing House, 1994 ; Zdravomyslov A.G. Sociology of conflict. - M.: Aspect press, 1995; Problems of analysis and regulation / Edited by E.I. Chumikov A.N. Social and political conflict: theoretical and applied aspects. - M., 1993. 5 Decree.
The situation and culture of the negotiation process are discussed in the works of O.V. Allahverdo-voy, N.S. Danakina, A.D. Karpenko, A.N. Chumikova and others 1
The study of ethnic conflicts as a type of social
(sch conflicts are devoted to the works of E. Azar, M. Gordon, D. Horowitz, T. Gurr,
D.Dafney, D.Sandoula, M.Esman. The structure-forming characteristics of a nation, the properties of national consciousness and self-awareness, nationalism as an ideology and psychology are considered in the works of L. Acton, B. Andersen, J. Broya, E. Gellner, N. Smelser, E. Smith and others. Domestic ethno-conflictology is based on theoretical works ethnologists, political scientists, ethnographers, socio-
>th logs Among them, it is necessary to highlight the works of R.G. Abdulatipova, E.A. Bagra-
mov, Yu.V. Bromley, K.S. Gadzhieva, M.N. Guboglo, L.N. Gumileva, which analyze the general problems of the theory of ethnicity, issues of national relations, problems of the national-state structure. 4 In the development of the theory of interethnic conflicts, the works of V.A. acquired great importance. Avk-
Allahverdova O.V. The practice of conflict resolution - myth or reality? // Modern conflictology: ways and means of promoting the development of democracy, a culture of peace and harmony: Abstracts of reports and speeches at the 2nd International Congress of Conflictologists. -SPb: Nauka, 2004; Danakin N.S., Dyatchenko L.Ya. Technology for resolving social conflicts // Sociological studies, 1993. - No. 9; Karpenko A.D. Mediation in practice // Abstracts of reports. and ext. at the 2nd International Congress of Conflictologists; Chumikov A.N. Decree. slave.
" Azar E. The Management of Protracted Social Conflict: Theory and Cases. - Brookfield,
Vt.(USA):Gower Publishers, etc., 1990; Horowitz D. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. - Berkley, 1985; Gurr T., Harff V. Ethnic Conflict in World Politics. -Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford, 1994; Sandole D. Capturing the Complexity of Conflict: Dealing with Violent Ethnic Conflicts in the Post-Cold War Era. -London & New York, 1999;
3 Acton L. The principle of national self-determination // Nations and nationalism. Per. from English and German - M.: Praxis, 2002; Andersen B. Introduction // Nations and nationalism. - M.: Praxis, 2002; Broilly J. Approaches to the study of nationalism. - There; Gellner E. Nations and nationalism. - M.: Progress, 1991; Smelser N. Sociology. Per. from English - M.: Phoenix, 1994; Smith E. Nationalism and historians // Nations and nationalism. - M.: Praxis, 2002.
f 4 Abdulatipov R.G. Nation and nationalism: good and evil in the national question. - M., 1999; Bug
Ramov E.A., Gaevsky I.A. National question: two systems - two approaches. - M.: Nauka, 1985; Bromley Yu. V. Essays on the theory of ethnos. - M.: Nauka, 1983; Guboglo M.N. Bashkortostan and Tatarstan. Parallels of ethnopolitical development: Essays. - M., 1994; Gumilev L.N. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth. - M., 1989.
Sentyeva, M.S. Dzhunusova, L.M. Drobizheva, A.G. Zdravomyslova, V.N. Ivanova, M.V. Jordana, V.G. Smolyansky, V.A. Tishkova and others 1
The problems of regionalization, its connection with the processes of globalization, their impact on Russian society as a whole and on regional communities have now become the subject of scientific analysis by K.S. Gadzhieva, V.I. Dobrenkova, P.I. Kukonkova, E.R. Tagirova, E.I. Stepanova and others. The phenomenon of regionalism is considered in the works of such foreign authors as W. Isard, K. Deutsch, F. Braudel, H. Mackinder, E. Markusen, N. Palmer and others. 3 In domestic science, the development of the concept of regionalism is associated with names of A.V. Baranov, A. A. Vartumyan, Yu.N. Gladky, A.S. Makarycheva, V.R. Chagilova, A.I. Chistobaeva and others 4
Since the early 1990s, problems of interethnic relations, the study of conflict in multiethnic societies, the study of real conflict
Avksentyev V.A. Ethnic conflictology: in search of a scientific paradigm. - Stavropol: SSU Publishing House, 2001; Dzhunusov M.S. Methodological introduction to the study of socio-political and interethnic conflicts. - M.: Nauka, 1991; Arutyunyan Yu.V., Drobizheva L.M., Susokolov A.A. Ethnosociology: - M., 1998; Zdravomyslov A.G. Decree. slave.; Ivanov V.N., Sglolyansky V.G. Conflicts and conflictology. - M., 1994; Jordan M.V. Science of national reconciliation // Social sciences and modernity. -1992. - No. 4; Smolyansky V.G. National conflicts in the USSR and the CIS (1985-1992). - Ulan-Ude, 1996; Tishkov V.A. Ethnology and politics. Scientific journalism. - M.: Nauka, 2001.
2 Gadzhiev K.S. Political science.- M.: Soros: International. relations, 1994; Dobrenkov V.I.
Globalization and Russia // Abstracts of reports and speeches at the Second International Congress
conflictologists. Volume 1. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2004; Tagirov E.R. Center - regions: search
formulas of consent on the path to federalization of Russia // Social conflicts: examination, about
forecasting, resolution technologies. Issue 20: Regional conflicts: modeling, mo
monitoring, management. - M., 2003; Stepanov E.I., Kukonkov P.I. Problems and prospects
delimitation, monitoring and management of regional tensions and conflicts. // Social
al conflicts... Vol. 20.
3 Deutsch K. On Nationalism, World Regions and the Nature of the West.// Mobilization, Center-
Periphery Structures and Nation-Building. A Volume in Commemoration of Stein Rokkan // Uni-
versitetsforlaget. - Bergen-Oslo-Tromso, 1981; Mackinder H. Democratic Ideals and Reality.
NDU Press Defense Classic Editions. - Washington, D.C., 1996; Markusen A. Regions: Economics
and Politics of Territory. - Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1987; Palmer D. The New Region
alism in Asia and the Pacific. Lexingtjn Books. - Massachussets Toronto, 1991.
4 Baranov A.B., Vartumyan A.A. Political regional studies: Course of lectures. Issue 1. - M.:
Publishing house RGSU "Soyuz", 2003; Gladkiy Yu.N., Chistobaev A.I. Regional studies. - M., 2002; Ma-
Karychev A.S. Federalism in the era of globalism: challenges for regional Russia // Politiche
ski research. - 2000. - No. 5; Chagilov V.R. Ethnic identity in the face of global
ballroom challenges: theoretical and methodological problems / Russia in the context of globalization:
Philosophical, sociocultural and political problems: Sat. Art. and theses. interregional
scientific-practical conference of NGTI. - Nevinnomyssk: NGTI, 2004. - P.278-290.
processes are the focus of attention of social scientists in the North Caucasus. The works of V.A. are devoted to the development of theoretical, methodological and conceptual foundations for the study of ethnic conflicts at the regional level. Avksentyeva, M.A. Astvatsaturova, G.S. Denisova, A.M. Erokhin, M.V. Savva, L.L. Khoperskoy, K.K. Khutyza and others 1 Adyghe scientists M.B. Bedzhanov, R.A. Hanahu, A.Yu. Shadzhe are engaged in a comprehensive study of the problems of the national revival of mountain peoples, studying their mentality, and considering the sociocultural factors of the stability of multi-ethnic societies. 2 Problems of the formation of Russian patriotism in new conditions, the relationship between internationalism and nationalism are considered in the works of Sy. Ivanova, V.Sh. Nakhushev. 3 The works of K.G. are devoted to the anthropological and educational conditions of conflict in society in the regional dimension. Gozheva. 4 Problems of ethnopolitical conflicts using the example of Karachay-Cherkessia are studied by A.Kh. Erizheva, Ossetian-Ingush relations are the subject of scientific analysis by A.B. Dzadzieva, Ossetian-Georgian -V.D.Dzidzoeva, I.B. Sanakoeva, the causes of conflicts in the republic
Avksentyev V.A. Ethnic conflictology. In 2 parts. Part 2. - Stavropol: SSU Publishing House, 1996; Astvatsaturova M.A. Modern trends in interethnic relations in the Stavropol region // Ethnic problems of our time. VypLO.-Stavropol, 2004; Denisova G.S., Ulanov V.P. Russians in the North Caucasus: analysis of the transformation of sociocultural status. - Rostov-on-Don: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University, 2003; Erokhin A.M. Ethnopolitical aspects of the transformation of Russian society. - M.: RITSISSI RAS, 2003; Savva M.V. On the conflict potential of interethnic relations in the south of Russia // Abstracts of reports and speeches at the 2nd International Congress of Conflictologists. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2004; Khoperskaya L.L. Local ethnopolitical conflicts in the south of Russia: causes, dynamics and methods of prevention // Ibid.; Khutyz K.K. National relations under totalitarianism: experience and lessons of 1917-1940. Based on the material of the Adyghe peoples of the North Caucasus. - Rostov-on-Don: Publishing House Rost, University, 1993.
2 Bedzhanov M.B. Problems of national relations in the North Caucasus and ways to solve them. - Maykop: Adyghe republic. book publishing house, 1997; Hanahu R.A. Traditional culture of the North Caucasus: challenges of the time (socio-philosophical analysis). - Maykop, 1997; Shaje A.Yu. The value of the cultural component in resolving conflicts in the North Caucasus // Abstracts of reports and speeches at the 2nd International Congress of Conflictologists. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2004.
3 Ivanova S.Yu. Patriotism, nationalism, globalism: historical, anthropological, sociocultural aspects. - Stavropol: SSU Publishing House, 2004; Nakhushev V.Sh. Russian fatherland and the drama of patriotism of a multinational people. - Stavropol-Cherkessk: SSU Publishing House, 2001.
4 Gorzhev K.M. Education-conflict-dialogue (socio-philosophical analysis). - Karacha-evsk: Publishing house KChGPU, 2002; Gozhev K.M. Anthropology of education and social conflict. - St. Petersburg: Asterion, 2004.
9 Dagestan is considered by the public in their works by Z.M.Abdulagatov, E.F. Kis-riev et al. 1
This gives us the right to state that the foundations of regional ethno-conflictology have been formed in the North Caucasus, represented by the works of the above-mentioned scientists and the research of many other social scientists who contribute to the study of specific conflictological problems of this region.
At the same time, consideration of the main problems of ethnic conflictology from a regional perspective has not yet become the subject of a holistic conceptual study. There are still few works related to the modeling and management of ethnic conflicts in a particular region. This determines the need for this dissertation research, determines its object, subject, purpose and objectives.
The object of the study is ethno-conflictological knowledge at the regional level.
Subject research is the process of technologization of ethno-conflictological knowledge in a multi-ethnic region.
Purpose of the dissertation research- determination of the main theoretical-methodological and political-technological directions for the development of ethnic conflictology in the regional aspect.
In accordance with this goal, the following tasks are set:
Identify the main modern trends in the study of social conflicts both abroad and in Russia;
Abdulagatov Z.M. The ideology of Islamic fundamentalism as the cause of the armed conflict in the Republic of Dagestan // Dagestan sociological collection 2000. - Makhachkala, 2001; Dzadziev A.B. Ossetian-Ingush conflict: history and current state. - Vladikavkaz, 2002; Erizheva A.Kh. Problems of dysfunctionalism of regional authorities // Ethnic problems of our time. Vol. 10. -Stavropol, 2004; Kisriev E.F. Islam and power in Dagestan. - M.: O.G.I., 2004;. Dzidzoev V.D. The Caucasus of the late 20th century: trends in ethno-political development (historical and political science research). - Vladikavkaz: Vlad, scientific center of the Russian Academy of Sciences and North Ossetia, 2000; Sanakoev I.B. Origins and factors of evolution of the Georgian-Ossetian conflict. - Vladikavkaz, 2004.
conduct an analysis of the processes of globalization, regionalization and federalism taking place in Russia in the context of conflictological knowledge;
characterize ethnic conflictology as one of the areas of research in multiethnic regions;
identify the basic principles of monitoring, modeling and management of ethno-regional conflicts;
present a model of conflict processes in a multi-ethnic region (based on materials from the Karachay-Cherkess Republic);
summarize the experience of resolving the ethno-political conflict in Karachay-Cherkessia and develop principles for the effective management of ethno-conflict processes in the republic.
Theoretical and methodological basis of the dissertation There is a dialectical approach, implemented in the principles of comprehensiveness, historicism, specificity, objectivity, and complementarity of scientific knowledge. The main focus of this study is a systematic analysis of ethnopolitical processes taking into account their regional specifics, as well as conflictological processing of available empirical information in order to build a regional model of conflict processes in a multiethnic society based on the leading method of conflictological research - the subject-activity approach. When analyzing a specific ethnopolitical conflict in the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, the case-study method (analysis of specific situations) was used. Historical and sociological research methods are used as auxiliary ones to reveal the essence of the ethno-conflict processes being studied in the unity of the past, present and future, as well as their dependence on social factors. Applied political science methods were used: analysis of statistical documents, content analysis of media materials.
The theoretical basis of the dissertation is the works of modern foreign and domestic conflictologists, political scientists, ethnologists, regionalists
Dov, as well as materials from discussions and discussions that unfolded in the scientific literature on the problems of globalization, regionalization and federalism.
Empirical basis dissertation research included documents reflecting state and regional national policy (Concept of state national policy of the Russian Federation, draft Concept of interethnic relations in the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Concept of state policy of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, approved by the Resolution of the People's Assembly of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic of December 20, 1996 No. 230), statistical data federal and regional levels, protocols and resolutions of congresses of the peoples of Karachay-Cherkessia, appeals from public organizations, statements by official and opposition leaders during ethno-regional conflicts. The work also presents the results of specific sociological research on the topic under study, regularly (since 1998) conducted in Karachay-Cherkessia within the framework of various projects with the direct participation of the author.
Scientific novelty research is expressed as follows:
the main directions and prospects for the study of social conflicts are determined from the point of view of the formation of a new type of conflictology knowledge - regional conflictology;
It has been established that the conflict potential of the processes of globalization, regionalization and federalism occurring in Russian society enhances the regionalization of conflictological knowledge;
it was concluded that ethnic conflictology is the most regionalized in comparison with other “sectoral” conflictologies and is becoming one of the main areas of socio-political research in multi-ethnic regions of the Russian Federation;
a unified theoretical and methodological scheme for organizing regional monitoring and management of ethnopolitical processes and conflicts has been proposed;
On this basis, a holistic model of con
conflict processes in the Karachay-Cherkess Republic in the post-Soviet period
od;
The role and importance of the federal center in the settlement of ethnic
political conflict in the republic and promising directions are outlined
regional policy for the settlement and management of ethno-conflict
processes in Karachay-Cherkessia.
Main provisions submitted for defense:
An appeal to modern trends in the study of social conflicts showed that the theoretical positions of the classics of conflictology and their development in Western and domestic conflictology created a general theoretical and methodological foundation for the transfer of conflictology research from a general theoretical level to a specific conceptual one; from “country” to regional. The regional level of studying socio-political processes in Russia is becoming a priority in the research of both foreign and domestic social scientists, which is reflected in institutionalized forms of study and in the topics of published works.
The processes of globalization, regionalization and federalism taking place in Russia are interconnected, politically motivated, and conflict-prone. An analysis of their relationship in the context of conflictological knowledge shows that in Russia, the problems of globalization and relations between the center and the regions acquire their own national specificity, expressed in the contradictory consequences of globalization for the multi-ethnic regions of the country and in the underdevelopment of federalism in Russia.
The transformation of ethnic conflictology into the leading direction of socio-political research in multi-ethnic regions of the Russian Federation is due to a number of factors, among which the most significant are: the prevalence and severity of ethnic conflicts in the post-Soviet period; the ethnopolitical nature of most of these conflicts; inclusion in the paradigm of understanding ethnic conflicts of international, geopolitical
13 national and global aspects; the possibility of moving from a reactive response to conflict situations to their proactive resolution using the accumulated theoretical and practical potential of ethnic conflictology.
The principles of monitoring, modeling and management of ethno-regional conflicts represent the unity of the main conceptual approaches to their implementation, which include: the subject-activity approach, the analysis of ethno-nationalism as the ideological basis of ethno-conflicts, the characteristics of social tension and the definition of practical tasks of monitoring, modeling and management of ethno-regional conflicts - conflict processes taking into account regional specifics. Practical tasks of monitoring, modeling and management of ethno-regional tensions and conflicts are associated with the creation of a holistic model of ethno-conflict situations, taking into account the entire set of conflict-generating factors and the development on its basis of a model for managing these processes at the regional level.
Created on the basis of these principles, the model of regional conflict processes in the Karachay-Cherkess Republic gives a holistic picture of the dynamics, subjects, endogenous and exogenous factors of conflict in the republic throughout all post-Soviet years, the basis of which is political processes in the republic, associated, first of all, with the struggle for the power of various ethnic elites. In modern Karachay-Cherkessia, the conflict-producing consequences of Soviet and post-Soviet nation-building, the archaization of the economy and politics, expressed in ethno-clanism, and the growth of the shadow sector of the economy, are manifested. Ethnosocial tension is growing in the republic, the majority of the population experiences a feeling of dissatisfaction with the main aspects of both everyday and socio-political life, and the activity of ethnic elites in the sphere of ethnopolitics is intensifying.
Experience in resolving the ethnopolitical conflict of 1999-2000. in Karachay-Cherkessia showed the role and importance of the federal center in monitoring compliance with the constitutional order in the republic. In na-
14 At the present time in Karachay-Cherkessia, in order to prevent and resolve ethnic conflicts, it is necessary to: change the legislative framework for the representation of small ethnic groups in the power structures of the regional and federal levels; using the civil potential of each ethnic group to build civil society in the Karachay-Cherkess Republic; implementation of the principles of “culture of peace” based on the unity of cultural forms of the peoples of Karachay-Cherkessia; the republic’s entry into the system of international economic cooperation based on the use of regional recreational complexes; implementation of constant conflictological examination of management decisions.
Theoretical significance of the dissertation research is that its content and main conclusions can be used for the further development of the theoretical and methodological foundations of regional ethno-conflictology, to substantiate the potential, role and significance of ethno-political conflictology for regional studies in a multi-ethnic society, for the formation and development of technologies for ethno-conflict studies.
Practical significance of the study. The conclusions and provisions set out in the dissertation can be used in drawing up concepts for the harmonization of interethnic relations in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, in the work of committees on ethnic relations under state and municipal authorities at various levels, and in the activities of the media.
The regional model of conflict processes in a single region (Karachay-Cherkessia) proposed in the dissertation and the determination on this basis of ways to resolve and manage them can be used by representatives of the scientific community and government bodies both in the studied region and in other regions.
The dissertation materials can be used in teaching a course on ethnic conflictology, in the development of special courses on regional studies, regional conflictology.
Approbation of work. The dissertation was discussed at a joint meeting of the Department of Social Philosophy and Ethnology of Stavropol State University and the Department of Socio-Political Problems of the Caucasus of the Southern Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences and recommended for defense in the specialty 23.00.02. -Political institutions, ethnopolitical conflictology, national and political processes and technologies.
The main provisions of the dissertation research were presented by the author at a number of international, all-Russian and regional conferences and seminars, including: the international scientific and theoretical conference “Cultural and historical community of the peoples of the North Caucasus and the problems of humanization of interethnic relations at the present stage” (Arkhyz-Cherkessk, 1998) ; All-Russian interuniversity conference “Problems of a culture of peace in Russia” (Nalchik, 1999); All-Russian scientific and practical Internet conference with international participation “Ethnic conflicts and their resolution: interaction of science, government, civil society” (Stavropol, 2002); Second International Congress of Conflictologists “Modern Conflictology: Ways and Means of Promoting the Development of Democracy, a Culture of Peace and Harmony” (St. Petersburg, 2004). The provisions and conclusions of the dissertation were presented by the author at meetings of the department of sociology and philosophy of the Institute of Humanitarian Studies of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, meetings of the academic council of the institute (1998-2004) and reflected in 14 publications of the author, with a total volume of 6 pp.
Current trends in social conflict research
One of the most important conceptual tasks in the development of domestic conflictology is the transfer of conflictology research from the general social to the regional level, which, in turn, involves consideration of exogenous and endogenous factors that determine conflict in certain regions. This determines the consideration of the problems of the relationship between the processes of globalization, Russian federalism and regionalism, as well as the justification of the role and significance of ethnic conflictology in multi-ethnic regions.
Consideration of modern trends in the study of social conflicts is necessary, in our opinion, both from the standpoint of substantiating their general theoretical and methodological foundation for the study of regional conflicts, and from the point of view of constructing an adequate theoretical model of social conflict, no matter in which region it occurs.
In the development of views on the phenomenon of social conflict in modern social science (starting from the mid-19th century) science, several stages can be distinguished:
The first (from the mid-19th century) meant the dominance of both Marxist and non-Marxist ideas within the framework of the concepts of social development. Conflict over class interests, according to Marx, is the basis of the heuristic principle of explaining history; according to Weber, it is the basic concept of sociology and is inseparable from all cultural life; there are both positive and negative consequences of conflict (Simmel);
The second stage (mid-20th century) is characterized by the predominance of the structural-functional school, which reflected the then system of institutions, laws, personal and group interactions of Western society. Within its framework, T. Parsons’ theory of social action and L. Coser’s theory of structural-positive conflict appeared, and the categorical system of conflict was revised;
The third stage (late 20th century) is associated with radically changed circumstances at the macro level and a change in the role and meaning of conflicts in society: conflicts in these conditions are focused on achieving a specific result (Bourdieu, Giddens, Scott).
In the 50-60s of the 20th century, conflictology was finally formalized as an independent scientific and practical branch of social knowledge. Both foreign and domestic researchers connect this:
firstly, with the need to resolve numerous issues in the field of management, regulation of international and domestic political relations;
secondly, with the desire of a number of scientists to refute the “theory of order” - the concept of the structural-functional direction of T. Parsons, which occupied a dominant position and personified the optimism and relative stability of the American way of life.1
Domestic conflict specialist E.I. Stepanov notes that the modern theory of conflict has gone through two stages. The first stage (1950-1970s) is associated with the formation of the sociology of conflict and with the opposition between the structural-functional (integrative) and conflict paradigms in sociology. During this period, the main research in the field of social conflict was related to the study of the causes and functions of this phenomenon, the dynamics of conflict behavior (L. Koser, I. Galtung, J. Bernard, A. Rapoport, etc.) and attempts to build a general theory of conflict (K. Boulding, L. Kriesberg, S. Fink, etc.). L. Coser in his works substantiated the need to study social conflicts, focusing on the positive functions of conflict, as opposed to Parson’s dysfunctional approach. This approach allowed L. Coser to form the original concept of “conflict functionalism”, which became an organic addition to structural functionalism as a middle-level theory, and on the other hand, laid the foundation for large-scale studies of social conflict in American sociology as an independent direction.1
R. Dahrendorf, the author of the famous work “Classes and Class Conflict in Industrial Society,” published in 1959, is the most prominent representative of the concept of the “conflict model of social development.” Conflict, in his opinion, is always present in society; it is a consequence of its variability. Conflicts according to Dahrendorf are a clash between bipolar structural elements that take different forms of manifestation, characterized by different degrees of intensity. They are included in the process of development of the social system; their institutionalization makes it possible to reduce the destructive potential and thereby integrate the system. Conflict, according to R. Dahrendorf’s definition, is a social norm; it is always present in a social system along with cooperation. Based on the position about the wide boundaries of conflict interaction, R. Dahrendorf determines possible forms of conflict regulation.
The method of suppressing conflict is an ineffective way of dealing with it, a type of suppression is a method of canceling conflict by intervening in relevant social structures in order to eliminate contradictions, a method of conflict regulation, in Dahrendorf’s opinion, is the most effective of all methods. Just like L. Coser, R. Dahrendorf views conflict as a social interaction, the form and variables of which are determined by the structure of society. The more complex (pluralistic) the society, the lower the intensity of conflicts (according to L. Coser, flexible social systems are more tolerant of conflicts).
Ethnic conflictology as one of the leading areas of socio-political research in multi-ethnic regions
The processes taking place in modern Russia (severance of economic, socio-cultural ties of regions, transformation of the national issue into a territorial one) aggravate many regional problems.
Regional problems are clusters of specific regional contradictions; more precisely, they are manifestations of unresolved social contradictions on the scale of a particular region. The following regional problems are identified: socio-demographic and ethno-national (active depopulation, social redundancy, threat to the reproduction of indigenous and, in many regions, Russian nationalities, non-adaptive changes in the national-ethnic composition, including due to unregulated migration, etc. .); associated with resource depletion (reduction of natural sources, for example, extracted minerals, pastures, etc.); having a geopolitical nature (formation of enclaves and exclaves, zones of border conflicts, etc.); caused by the rapid loss of the economic profile of the territory (problems of regional re-profiling). Depending on the specifics of the region, its geographical, resource, economic potential, ethnic composition, certain regional problems come to the fore, determining the level of tension in the development of the region as a whole, highlighting those “knots of contradictions” that need to be resolved first.
Representing a complex of various problems, regional problems have one common property - the lack of coordination of the mechanism of interaction between the Center and the periphery, the state as a whole and its constituent parts. Therefore, the study of regional problems has come to the forefront of political science research in modern conditions. Political science is faced with the urgent task of deeply understanding the roots of crisis phenomena and generalizing the positive and negative experiences of regional development. Currently the subject of regional development. Currently, the subject of regional research is a complex of social, economic, political, national, demographic, spiritual and environmental factors in the development of the region, which makes it possible to discover the roots of the most pressing problems. At the same time, it is necessary to study them from an objective and practical position, in order to extract practically significant lessons for the field of management.
This approach requires the integration of a wide range of humanities, allowing us to identify the interconnection of regional problems in which national, formational or civilizational patterns and local, spatio-temporal features are manifested. The territorially organized world is full of contradictions, which to a certain extent cause conflicts in individual regions.
Due to the weakening of federal power at the end of the 20th century, the strengthening of regionalization processes and the threat of disintegration of Russia, the regional level of analysis of socio-political conflicts has moved to the center of research attention. Regional conflicts reflect local characteristics of work and life, leisure and behavior, consciousness and worldview of people living for a long time in a certain territory, having stable traditions of culture and mentality. The specifics of the region determine the specifics of regional conflict. Without it, there is no qualitative certainty of the latter.1
Regionalization of a certain territory in the Russian Federation formally coincides with its administrative and political division. The relevant provisions of the country's Constitution strive to take into account the objectively established features of economic, socio-political, national, cultural and historical development when assigning the population to a certain territory. However, even in the ideal case, taking into account all possible objective conditions does not rid the procedure of a significant share of formalism and subjectivity.
Basic principles of monitoring, modeling and management of ethnore-regional conflicts
All leading domestic scientists are currently addressing the problems of technologization of social processes. Technologization is currently considered as an innovative method of developing social space.1 The essence of social technologies can be understood as an innovative system of methods for identifying and using the hidden potentials of a social system in accordance with the goals of its development and social norms; obtaining optimal social results at the lowest management costs. In the modern information era, it is necessary to make wider use of technologization of social space, which will allow timely resolution of social conflicts, relief of tension, and making optimal management decisions. As part of the development of the problem of social technologies, a universal model for managing the processes of social conflicts was proposed, taking into account the introduction of social technologies. It includes:
Assessment of the social situation (quantitative and qualitative), social conflict based on sociological, statistical data and the state of the main elements of the social sphere (food, family, everyday life, healthcare, etc.);
Clarification of management functions and identification of resources to meet social needs and resolve conflict.
Involvement of all management methods, creation of the necessary governing bodies and implementation of an adequate response to social processes.
Inclusion of incentives and creation of conditions for earning money for social needs by all segments of the population.1
Analysis of the scientific literature read and practical work experience allowed us to formulate the following understanding of social technologies. This is a system of actions of social actors and the rationale for these actions aimed at studying social reality (including conflict) in order to obtain certain results. In case of conflict interaction - in order to make optimal management decisions to resolve the conflict. Social technologization of conflictological research should include: a) real recording of processes occurring in society at the level of interest to the researcher; b) development of an action program to resolve conflicts (in the case of regional studies - for regional government structures).
Based on this understanding of social technologies, the second chapter of the presented work reveals the essence of political and technological problems of ethnic conflictology at the regional level. These, in our opinion, include: innovative methods for studying conflict-prone political space and their conceptual justification, as well as the development of effective modern methods for managing this space. Monitoring and modeling are considered as such study methods within the framework of ethno-conflictological research, and ethno-conflictological management is considered as management methods.
In accordance with this, one of the most important practical tasks of ethnic conflictology in multi-ethnic regions is the development and implementation of scientifically based regional policies for the prevention, forecasting and resolution of ethnic conflicts. The main means and methods for implementing this task are the organization in the regions of conflictological monitoring and modeling, which allows tracking the emergence of conflict situations, the dynamics of ethno-conflict tension, identifying their sources, the nature of the actions of the conflicting parties, receiving proactive information, and on this basis developing and implementing preventive measures, forecasting and resolving regional conflicts.
In the mid-1990s, the leading domestic conflictologist E.I. Stepanov proposed the following provisions as methodological guidelines for ethno-conflict monitoring:
A fundamental assessment of the current historical stage from the point of view of the role of certain conflict processes in the democratization of interethnic relations in a given republic or region;
Formulation of a criterion for separating ethnic conflicts themselves from the rest of the array of conflict situations. According to the author of these methodological guidelines, such a criterion is nationalism. Wherever it acts as the leading motive for conflict behavior, we are dealing with an interethnic conflict in its own sense.
Chapter 4. Ethnic conflicts: causes and methods of resolution
4.1. Definition and classification of ethnic conflicts
Intergroup relations consist of an inextricable nexus of conflict and cooperation, but the main problems for any society are introduced by numerous conflicts. When we say “intergroup conflicts,” revolutions, religious intolerance, interethnic clashes, rivalry between the sexes, and heated labor disputes come to mind. Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin calculated that over the 24 centuries in human history, for every four peaceful years there is one year accompanied by violent conflicts - wars, revolutions, riots. Among intergroup (or social in the broad sense of the word) conflicts, the following are usually distinguished:
Political conflicts, when the struggle is for power, dominance, influence, authority;
Socio-economic (or social in the narrow sense of the word) – “between labor and capital”, for example between trade unions and employers;
Ethnic – regarding the rights and interests of ethnic communities (see Zdravomyslov, 1993).
So, one of the most significant are conflicts between ethnic communities. However, one can agree with V.A. Tishkov that ethnic conflicts in a “pure” form actually do not exist (see Tishkov, 1997). In reality, we are faced with interpenetrating conflicts, each of which provides a breeding ground for the other. It is no coincidence that even conflict specialists often cannot come to a consensus about what kind of conflict they are dealing with - an ethnic one in political camouflage or vice versa. According to
Tishkov, almost all open conflicts on the territory of the former USSR can be classified as ethnic, because: “Due to the multi-ethnic composition of the population of the former USSR and the current new states..., virtually any internal conflict, socio-economic or political in nature, acquires an ethnic coloring, which, as a rule, deepens and complicates the contradictions that arise, giving conflicts an additional emotional background” (Tishkov, 1997, p. 304).
Researchers offer a variety of classifications of ethnic conflicts. When classified according to the goals that the parties involved in the conflict set for themselves in the struggle for limited resources, they can be divided into:
Socio-economic, in which demands for civil equality are put forward (from citizenship rights to equal economic status):
Cultural-linguistic, in which the demands put forward touch upon the problems of preserving or reviving the functions of the language and culture of an ethnic community;
Political, if the ethnic minorities involved seek political rights (from local government autonomy to full-blown confederalism);
Territorial - based on demands for changing borders, joining another - “related” from a cultural-historical point of view - state or creating a new independent state (see Yamskoye, 1997).
Sociologists, political scientists and ethnologists, trying to isolate conflict from other related phenomena, often consider it exclusively as a real struggle between groups, as a clash of incompatible actions. Thus, V.A. Tishkov defines “...ethnic conflict as any form of civil, political or armed confrontation in which the parties, or one of the parties, mobilize, act or suffer on the basis of ethnic differences” (Tishkov, 1997, p. .476). With this understanding of conflict, it turns out to be a stage of extreme aggravation of contradictions, manifested in conflict behavior, and has an exact start date - as the beginning of confrontation.
But from the point of view of a psychologist who takes into account the dynamics of the conflict, the very contradiction between groups that have incompatible goals in the struggle for limited resources (territory, power, prestige) turns out to be only one of the stages of the conflict - the stage that is usually called an objective conflict situation. As a matter of fact, almost everywhere on Earth there are contradictions between ethnic communities - interethnic tension in the broad sense of the word. Unfortunately, not a single multiethnic society can do without it. Most often, tension exists between the dominant ethnic community and an ethnic minority, but it can be either open, manifested in the form of conflicting actions, or hidden, smoldering. In the latter case, tension is expressed in social competition, achieved by evaluative comparison of one's own and out-groups in favor of one's own.
And the existing social contradictions, although they play a decisive role among the causes of conflict actions, are not directly related to them: conflict actions arise if the opposing parties have realized the incompatibility of their interests and have appropriate motivation for behavior. In other words, the stage of awareness and emotional maturation of the conflict is very important. Experienced “historical injustices” make low-status ethnic minority groups want to restore justice, but this does not necessarily lead to an immediate reaction. More often than not, many years pass before conflict interaction begins, during which the ethnic community rallies around the idea of vengeance. Many centuries have passed since the expulsion of the Jews from the Promised Land, but this fact was the rationale for their many years of struggle for return.
If an objective conflict situation is recognized, even random events, due to the inherent emotionality and sometimes irrationality of interethnic relations, can lead to conflict interaction as the most acute stage of the conflict. However, even if the situation is perceived as a conflict, social competition may not result in conflict interaction, because, as a rule, low-status groups enter into a struggle with high-status ones if they perceive intergroup relations not only as illegal, but also as unstable. It was precisely in the situation of instability caused by the collapse of the Soviet empire that the most opportune moment came for “revenge” for the “traumas” inflicted over the centuries on almost all the peoples of the former USSR.
At the stage of conflict interaction, ethnic conflicts tend to self-expand or escalate, which means that the parties move from “light” to “heavy” tactics: from mass non-violent actions (rallies, demonstrations, actions of “civil disobedience”) to clashes that or later lead to blood (between Ossetians and Ingush in the Prigorodny region of North Ossetia-Alania or between the Kyrgyz and Uzbeks in the Osh region of Kyrgyzstan), and even to military conflicts - ethnopolitical wars (Armenian-Azerbaijani, Georgian-Abkhazian) (see Streletsky, 1997).
Psychologists also identify another stage of conflict - its resolution or settlement, to the analysis of which we will devote a separate section of this chapter. For now, let us note that from the point of view of a psychologist, the conflict not only does not begin with the beginning of conflict actions, but also does not end with their end. After direct opposition is completed—at the “wound licking” stage—the conflict can persist in the form of social competition and manifest itself in the image of the enemy and prejudice. Even in the mid-90s. 24% of Russian respondents are over 60 years old, i.e. survivors of the war agreed with the statement that the Germans are the original enemies of the Russian people (see Zdravomyslov, 1996).
So, by ethnic conflict in the broad sense of the word we understand any competition between groups - from real confrontation for the possession of limited resources to social competition - in all those cases when, in the perception of at least one of the parties, the opposing side is defined in terms of the ethnicity of its members .
From the point of view of a sociologist or political scientist, this understanding of ethnic conflict is apparently not accurate. But when social competition is included in the concept of conflict, its explanation becomes more complex, since the cognitive and motivational processes that can precede direct conflicts, influence their escalation and continue after their completion are analyzed.
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Course work
in the discipline "Ethnosociology"
ETHNIC CONFLICT
Introduction
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Ethnic conflict is understood as a conflict between representatives of different nationalities or ethnic groups that arises as a result of differences in everyday life, traditions, culture, as well as as a result of social inequality. The problem of ethnic conflicts over the past decades has been one of the most pressing topics for researchers representing various fields of science.
The main reason for such close attention to this issue is the difficulty of resolving such conflicts, which have also become one of the most common sources of social contradictions and political instability. Most of the currently existing conflicts can be identified as ethno-religious-territorial. These are the Kosovo, Basque, Ulster, Karabakh, Georgian-Abkhaz crises and others. A huge number of ethnic conflicts continue to destabilize the situation in Africa and Latin America. For the Russian Federation, this problem is also serious - for example, the severe conflict that unfolded on Russian territory - the war in Chechnya.
This explains the relevance of the chosen topic.
The object of this test course work is conflicts in general, and the subject is ethnic conflict, its essence, structure, causes, functions and resolution technologies.
The main goal of this work is to explore ethnic conflict as a complex phenomenon. In accordance with the set goal, the following specific tasks are also solved:
1. reveal the concept of ethnic conflict;
2. consider the main characteristics of ethnic conflicts - structure and causes;
3. determine the typology of ethnic conflicts;
4. analyze the main functions of ethnic conflicts;
5. identify and characterize ways to prevent ethnic conflicts.
In Russian sociology, the study of ethnic conflicts was carried out by such scientists as Ozhiganov E.N., Drobizheva L.M., Zdravomyslov A.G., Verenko I.S., Frolov S.S. etc. At the same time, even the combined contribution of all these researchers does not exhaust this problem, but creates only the methodological foundations for its study.
ethnic conflict international military
1. Ethnic conflict as a social phenomenon
1.1 The concept of ethnic conflict
One of the most clearly manifested forms of intergroup relations built on an ethnic basis is conflict. Perhaps this is due to the fact that it is in a conflict situation that ethnic markers are most clearly manifested and ethnic boundaries are “held” most rigidly.
In theoretical sociology, researchers have long been divided into two groups - functionalists and conflictologists. This demarcation occurred due to a cardinal problem - identifying the sources and nature of social transformations. Functionalists represented by P. Sorokin, T. Parsons, R. Merton, N. Smelser emphasized the coherence of the functioning of the social system, in which conflict is a manifestation of pathology. This is also evidenced by the irrational nature of conflicts, accompanied by outbreaks of inexplicable violence, hatred and bloodshed. Conflict theorists, the most famous of whom are K. Marx and R. Dahrendorf, interpret conflict as the most important source of social dynamics, internally (immanently) inherent in society. And therefore, conflict management involves the use of social technologies, which include the institutionalization of both the subjects of the conflict and the conflict situation itself (introduction of the rules of the game, the negotiation process, the institution of mediators, etc.).
The vast majority of researchers agree that ethnic (interethnic) conflict is a special case of social conflict, having specific characteristics. These include the nature of the subjects (conflicting groups are formed on an ethnic basis) and the emotional-irrational nature of the conflict.
Here are several definitions of ethnic conflict:
Tishkov V.A. characterizes it as any form of “civil, political or armed confrontation in which the parties, or one of the parties, mobilize, act or suffer on the basis of ethnic differences.”
Drobizheva L.M. emphasizes the functional basis of ethnic conflict, which lies not in ethnicity, but in social problems that arise between groups consolidated on an ethnic basis.
Yamskov A.N. defines ethnic conflict through a description of collective actions: “Ethnic conflict is a dynamically changing socio-political situation generated by the rejection of the previously established status quo by a significant part of the representatives of one (several) local ethnic groups and manifested in the form of at least one of the following actions of members of this groups:
a) the beginning of ethno-selective emigration from the region...;
b) the creation of political organizations that declare the need to change the existing situation in the interests of the specified ethnic group...;
c) spontaneous protests against infringement of their interests by representatives of another local ethnic group...”
Sikevich Z.V. in his definition of ethnic conflict, he shifts the emphasis from the behavioral component to the analysis of the intersection of ethnic and political spaces: “By ethnic conflict we understand a social situation caused by the divergence of interests and goals of individual ethnic groups within a single ethnic space or ethnic group, on the one hand, and the state , on the other hand, at the intersection of ethnic and political space, expressed in the desire of an ethnic group (groups) to change ethnic inequalities or political space in its territorial dimension.”
In the latter case, the definition strictly links the subjects of the conflict and the underlying goals of their political activity, no matter what declarations they hide behind, and no matter in what forms the ethnic conflict itself manifests itself.
1.2 Structure of ethnic conflict
First of all, any conflict is characterized, of course, by the conflicting parties, as well as the subject of confrontation. These two defining elements of the conflict do not exhaust its structure. The latter includes conflict action in one form or another and the consciousness guiding it, means and methods of action, and the field of conflict. In addition, no conflict is possible without a conflict situation existing before its occurrence. Let us consider the noted structural elements of conflict interaction.
The subjects of the conflict, depending on its level, are individuals, groups, classes, national-ethnic communities, organizations, social institutions, public and political associations, states, and international communities. The key point in analyzing a conflict, A. Touraine believes, is a clear definition of social opponents and their value orientations.
The subjects of the conflict do not remain unchanged in the process of confrontation. The maturity of the conflict is judged by the degree of formation of the subjects. The more developed the conflict, the higher the maturity of the subjects. The dynamics of the conflict are directly related to the development of its subjects, and vice versa. If the conflict develops into a different qualitative state, the opposing sides qualitatively change accordingly. In the event of the development of an economic conflict, the political organization of wage workers, on the one hand, and the institutions of political power, on the other, begin to play a leading role in the political one. In such a situation, two options are possible for transforming the initiator of the conflict: joining the organization of economic struggle of political parties and movements or transforming an organization created to protect the economic interests of a certain social group into a political organization fighting for power.
The problem of the subject of the conflict has another aspect. To analyze the conflict and its dynamics, it is important to distinguish between the subject initiating the conflict action and the dominant one in this action. Moreover, this is not always the same subject. The agent who provoked the confrontation often turns out to be not the leading, not the determining party, but the driven, determined party. A change in the balance of opposing forces is one of the laws of conflict, especially class and international. This is the rule for military conflicts, although in history there have been many wars without winners.
The behavior and actions of subjects are directed by conflict consciousness. It is formed by a special state of social consciousness, the specificity of which lies in the awareness by the warring parties of the opposition of their interests, values, goals and their transformation into motivation for activity.
Now about the subject of the conflict. A material or spiritual object of social life, in relation to which an opposite direction of people’s activity is formed, constitutes the subject of conflict. They can be economic and social benefits, material and spiritual values, political regimes, legal institutions, political and public leaders, their programs, ideological doctrines, religious beliefs, human rights and freedoms, moral and aesthetic ideals, various traditions and much more that constitutes the elements of civilized social life. In a conflict, along with the real subject of confrontation, an imaginary, so to speak, quasi-subject may appear. The real subject is often hidden for the time being.
Koser L. identified power, status, redistribution of values and income as the variables (subject) of the conflict. Dahrendorf R. called the subject of modern social conflict the right to inclusion in the “majority” of a society that has achieved normal living conditions for itself. Parsons T. and his supporters consider the subject of social conflict to be the preservation of the stability of the system, its normative and value basis. Marxists bring to the forefront of class conflict the relations of ownership of the means of production and the political dominance of property owners determined by them.
As follows from the above, understanding the subject of the conflict has conceptual significance and is associated with the general approach of certain authors to understanding the mechanism of the social process as a whole. The subject of the conflict is its source. Depending on the depth of penetration of the analysis into the essence of social processes, the researcher records a certain level of the basis of the conflict. Let's say, Parsons T. limits himself to explaining most conflicts by deviant behavior of people. “One of the sources of change,” he writes, “is the spread of deviant behavior, as well as the growth of various types of conflicts, and most conflicts contain as essential ingredients what can rightfully be called deviant behavior” 8. Hence, naturally, the conclusion about conflict as a temporary, pathological phenomenon.
We have already discussed the definition of L. Coser, who considers power, status, and values to be the common grounds for conflicts. This definition also does not sufficiently clarify the subject of the conflict - relations of domination, primarily socio-economic, which predetermines the typology of statuses, the nature of power and values. The Marxist approach seems limited, since it recognizes only class relations of domination as the basis of the conflict, its subject. In society, as we know, there are other types of domination that give rise to opposition of interests, positions, views, etc. Political structures as self-sufficient realities, various kinds of social institutions that are independent entities, dominant value systems - all these elements of society have a reverse impact on class relations and serve as a constant source of various conflicts.
The subject of many conflicts is the level of efficiency of the economy, political leadership and organization of public life in its various areas.
The subject of the conflict is the variable that characterizes any conflict. Its analysis is always necessary, no matter what the conflicting relationship.
Any conflict arises, proceeds and is resolved against the background of a conflict situation. The latter is an integral side of the conflict, an essential element of its structure.
A conflict situation includes, first of all, an acute form of contradiction that forms the basis of the conflict; precisely one in which both opposites or one of them can no longer exist within the framework of the previous relationship, unity. One side or both are not satisfied, for example, with social status, the level of participation in the system of power, the ability to access the distribution of benefits, etc.
The presence of a conflict situation indicates the formation of conflict-generating factors, indicates the emergence of a conflict initiator (leader, group, organization), as well as the readiness to support it on the part of other subjects with an established attitude towards conflict. A conflict situation in society is a situation of social tension when the legitimacy in the broadest sense of the word (social justification) of various social structures, values, and order is undermined. The conflict situation is stimulated by crisis phenomena. Crises in society can act as a condition for the emergence of a conflict situation, or are the background against which conflicts unfold.
1.3 Causes of ethnic conflict
There are several theories that explain the causes of interethnic conflicts based on the study of experience accumulated in various regions of the world. Differing in scale, social origin, “age,” and tension, interethnic conflicts have the same “ultimate nature” that contribute to ethnic mobilization. Their deep roots are violations of the rights of a particular ethnic group, ethnic group, justice and equality in interethnic relations.
The immediate causes of ethnic conflict may be territorial, economic, political, social and other contradictions. A frequent occurrence of a conflict is the presence of several causes. It should also be noted that the subjective factor plays a crucial role in the emergence of a conflict and significantly complicates its course and resolution. It is the subjective factor that makes interethnic conflict explosive and intense.
Interethnic conflict influenced by the religious factor takes on a special coloration. Analysis of conflicts gives reason to believe that the role of the religious factor in ideological support is very large and quite often is a direct guide to the clash of conflicting parties.
The basis of interethnic conflicts are the problems and contradictions that arise in the process of relations between ethnic groups. In a multinational state, any issue, no matter what it concerns - economics, politics, culture - invariably acquires a national expression. The emergence of interethnic conflicts and their severity largely depend on the form of construction of a multinational state and its national policy.
One of the main causes of interethnic conflicts is the territorial problem, territorial disputes. The essence of the problem usually lies in the fact that as a result of numerous population migrations, conquests and other geopolitical processes, the territory of settlement of an ethnic group in the past has repeatedly changed, and the boundaries of the state have changed. In this regard, territorial claims arise, and as arguments, a statement is put forward about the belonging of a particular territory to a certain ethnic group in the past. Due to their complexity and subjectivity, territorial disputes are the most complex and practically insoluble.
The political causes of conflicts are associated with ethno-territorial problems. We are talking, first of all, about the problem of creating independent territorial-state entities by ethnic groups. Most of the ethnic groups on the planet do not have their own independent territorial-state entities. As the economy and culture of ethnic groups develop, and their ethnic self-awareness grows, movements arise among them with the goal of creating an independent national state. Such a movement usually occurs if an ethnic group at some stage in its history already had statehood and subsequently lost it. Political causes of conflicts also arise when there is a restriction or deprivation of part of a group (and even entire peoples) of political and personal rights and freedoms on the basis of national (ethnic) affiliation. The division of ethnic groups into “indigenous” and “non-indigenous”, “titular” and “non-titular” also gives rise to political and legal inequality, and, therefore, can be the cause of interethnic conflicts.
The economic causes of ethnic conflicts are varied. First of all, this is the struggle of ethnic groups for the possession of material resources and property, among which the most valuable are land and mineral resources. The essence of the conflict comes down to the fact that each of the conflicting parties seeks to justify their “natural” right to use land and natural resources. Interethnic conflict may be the result of deprivation of ethnic peripheral groups, uneven development, uneven modernization of the “core” and the ethnonational periphery in a multinational multiethnic state. In these cases, economic inequality between different ethnic groups, perceived as collective ethno-national disadvantage, becomes the reason for the formation and manifestation of ethnic solidarity.
Ethnic conflicts can arise due to social reasons and social tension. More often this happens in conditions of a crisis in society, when the preconditions for socio-political confrontation and conflicts arise, including on ethnic grounds. Similar conflicts are observed in multi-ethnic states when social heterogeneity develops in the ethno-territorial aspect. And then the problems of social insecurity, unemployment, ethnodemography, etc. acquire a visibly expressed ethnic character. In prestigious types of activities, competition arises between titular and non-titular ethnic groups.
Another cause of ethnic conflicts may be ethnocultural, including linguistic, problems. When the ethnocultural needs of a particular ethnic group are not met, conditions for learning and using their native language are not provided, or even linguistic chauvinism is clearly manifested, this leads to interethnic tension and potential conflict. It should be noted, however, that we are not talking about “purely” ethnocultural problems; social interests are visible behind them. Thus, giving state status to the language of only the titular nation in a multi-ethnic state infringes on the importance of other ethnic groups and becomes a means to occupy key positions in society, i.e. provides representatives of the titular nation with certain privileges.
Socio-psychological factors play an important role in the formation of interethnic tension. Ethnic tension as a mass mental state is based on emotional infection, mental suggestion and imitation. National grievances and injustices persist in historical memory for a particularly long time. Interethnic tension is also characterized by such a mental state as mass neuroticism. This condition is characterized by increased emotional arousal, causing various negative experiences: anxiety, restlessness, irritability, confusion, despair. Relationships between “friends and strangers” are even more sharply polarized: one’s own ethnic group is assessed more positively, and strangers – more negatively. Psychological tension can be created by ethnic problems - real and imaginary - based on rumors, false information, and provocations.
If we combine these reasons into several groups, as applied to Russian society, we get the following picture:
1. Socio-economic – inequality in living standards, unemployment, different representation in prestigious professions;
2. Administrative and political – hierarchy of peoples (union, autonomous republics, autonomous regions and districts), representation in government bodies, integration of one form of national statehood into another;
3. Cultural and linguistic – insufficient attention to national culture and language from the point of view of non-Russian peoples, the displacement of national languages from public life by the Russian language.
4. Ethnodemographic and ethnomigration – a rapid change in the ratio of the numbers of contacting ethnic groups due to migration and differences in the level of natural population growth;
5. Ethno-territorial – discrepancy between state or administrative borders and the boundaries of settlement of peoples, arbitrary redrawing of inter-republican borders, unjustified transfer of territories;
6. Confessional – not only the multi-ethnicity of national republics and regions, but also the multi-confessional population, overlapping and intertwining with each other;
7. Historical - the influence of past relationships between peoples (not only peaceful, but also conflict, unequal wars, etc.).
2. Types and functions of ethnic conflicts
2.1 Types of ethnic conflicts
In contrast to purely political science analysis of ethnic conflicts, sociologists are interested in the priority goals of conflicting groups, depending on which a typology of conflicts is built. Thus, L.M. Drobizheva identified 4 types of ethnic conflicts:
Status institutional conflicts in the union republics, which developed into a struggle for independence;
Status conflicts in autonomous republics and regions that arose as a result of the struggle to increase the status of the republic or obtain it;
Ethno-territorial conflicts;
Intergroup (intercommunity) conflicts growing on the basis of everyday nationalism.
A more detailed typology including the target and dynamic aspects of the course of an ethnic conflict is presented in the works of Z.V. Sikevich. Depending on the goals of the conflicting parties, she identifies 5 types of conflicts: cultural-linguistic, socio-economic, status, territorial and secession, and then shows how, depending on the degree of tension and stage of development, the conflict flows from one type to another. In the first phase, value-symbolic claims are declared - the revival of language, cultural traditions, etc. (cultural-linguistic type), in the second - an expansion of demands is observed, including a change in the economic situation and social status of the ethnic group (socio-economic and status types), in in the third phase, claims expand to territorial claims within one state (territorial type of conflict) or claims to formalize their own statehood (secession type of conflict).
In this case, the parties to the conflict may be various ethnic groups within the republic, an ethnic group - the republican government, an ethnic group and the federal center, the republican government and the federal center.
A well-known specialist in the field of conflictology, a scientist from Stavropol V.A. Avksentyev, identified the following as the basis for the typology and classification of ethnic conflicts:
Spheres of public life where they manifest themselves in the most vivid form (political, economic, religious, etc.);
Carrier subjects and the degree of their institutionalization (one ordinal, for example: titular ethnic group - titular ethnic group; different ordinal: titular ethnic group - ethnic minority).
Undoubtedly, the course of an ethnic conflict is influenced by many factors, for example, the cultural environment of the conflict, the attitude of nearby countries towards it, etc. Each of the ethnic conflicts is unique, but at the same time it is possible to identify stable features inherent in ethnic conflicts of a certain type. Identifying an ethnic conflict and classifying it as one type or another allows us to move on to more complex types of its study - modeling and forecasting its dynamics.
Using established methodological approaches, it is possible to identify all these types of conflicts on the “conflict map” of the North Caucasus. (This task has been successfully implemented in the works of scientists from the North Caucasus and analysts at the country's leading research centers - the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences).
2.2 Functions of ethnic conflict
At the present stage, both the condemnation of hostile confrontations at any level and the recognition of the important role of peacefully resolved conflicts in establishing mutual understanding and cooperation between the parties are clearly distinguished.
The function of conflict expresses, on the one hand, its social purpose, and on the other, the dependence that arises between it and other components of social life. In the first case, the consequences of the conflict are taken into account, in the second - the direction of the relations of conflicting subjects of social ties.
A conflict is one of those phenomena that cannot be assessed unambiguously. It acts as a way of social interaction in conditions of heightened tension between subjects, when incompatible views, positions and interests are revealed, and there is a confrontation between parties pursuing goals far removed from each other.
By its very nature, a conflict can be a carrier of both creative and destructive tendencies, be good and evil at the same time, bring both benefit and harm to the parties involved. Therefore, its functions are characterized taking into account positive and negative consequences.
Positive, functionally useful results of the conflict are considered to be the solution to the problem that gave rise to the contradiction and caused the clash, taking into account the mutual interests and goals of all parties, as well as achieving understanding and trust, strengthening partnerships and cooperation, overcoming conformism, humility, and the desire for superiority. The negative, dysfunctional consequences of conflict include dissatisfaction with the common cause, avoidance of solving pressing problems, and increasing hostility in relationships.
In terms of their content, the functions of conflict cover both the material sphere (related to economic interests, benefits or losses) and the spiritual and moral sphere (can increase or weaken social activity, encourage or suppress optimism, inspiration of people). All this has an emotional impact on the effectiveness of joint activities and can facilitate or complicate the process of managing an organization.
Life presents countless facts confirming the functional diversity of conflicts in terms of direction, beneficial and harmful consequences.
One of the main functions of conflict is the one through which an integrating effect is achieved. Integration wins in those specific situations when the conflict leads to the unification of joint efforts based on the coordination of mutual interests, and loses if the conflict causes damage to organization and unity that is difficult to repair.
The most important function of conflict is the activation of social connections, giving the interaction of the parties and their relationships greater dynamism and mobility. The consequences of a particular conflict are also consistent. It can promote social mobility, accelerate or slow down the process of socio-economic and spiritual-moral development.
Significant functions of conflict include signaling about hotbeds of social tension. A conflict encounter allows not only to discover unresolved problems and serious failures in the conduct of business, but also provides an opportunity for open expression of the needs, interests and aspirations of subjects, their dissatisfaction or protest. It is important, having understood the cause of the conflict, to evaluate its functional orientation.
The function of conflict as transformation (transformation) of relationships is also very significant. The conflict, polarizing opposing forces, simultaneously creates the preconditions for their unification and cohesion on a new basis, and helps strengthen mutual respect and trust.
If negative principles predominate in the conflict, such a conflict turns the warring parties away from cooperation, erects artificial barriers to mutual understanding, fueled by the desire to continue the confrontation and, regardless of anything, to insist on one’s own at any cost. As a result, the moral and psychological atmosphere deteriorates, and relations between participants in a common cause become more complicated.
More complete awareness, achieved through the unfolding of the conflict, contributes to the establishment of normal communication, the identification of common ideas about the true state of affairs, and the coordination of mutual interests and obligations of the parties. And this, in turn, can give rise to friendly relations, equal dialogue, openness in the exchange of divergent opinions, which is necessary and almost always useful so that everyone better understands the other participants in the conflict, the motives for their behavior, the potential abilities that they have .
And one more important function of conflict should be paid attention to - the prevention (prevention) of destructive confrontations. By achieving a detente between the parties to the conflict, resolving emerging and aggravated disagreements, it is possible to avoid collisions with significant material damage and moral losses. But only a thorough understanding of the conflict process and its results can more accurately indicate the leading vector of the changes taking place. Only through the prism of careful analysis and awareness of the consequences is the predominant function of a particular conflict determined. Moreover, the consequences of the conflict depend on many objective and subjective factors, the nature of the parties’ behavior, methods for overcoming differences, and the skills of those who managed the conflict.
3. Technologies for resolving ethnic conflicts
3.1 Prevention and resolution of ethnic conflicts
The development of interethnic conflicts is influenced not only by the reasons leading to them, but also by other circumstances: firstly, how widely they grow, how much space they cover (this means not just territory, which is important especially for violent conflicts, but exactly what kind of territory it is - flat, mountainous, wooded, swampy, etc.); secondly, the population of what type of settlement is involved in the conflict - a big city, a small town, towns, etc. The intensity and time of development of the conflict also matter, since, for example, the more protracted the conflict, the more difficult it is to get out of it.
The method of weakening the conflict is the deconsolidation of the forces involved in the conflict, using a system of measures that make it possible to cut off (for example, by discrediting in the eyes of the public) the most radical elements or groups and support the forces that are more prone to compromise and negotiations.
In the process of conflict regulation, it is important to exclude the influence of factors that can consolidate one or another conflicting party. Such a factor may be the use of force or the threat of its use. The experience of the Chechen conflict demonstrated this very clearly.
Application of a wide range of sanctions, from symbolic to military. It should be borne in mind that sanctions can work on extremist forces, strengthening and intensifying the conflict. Armed intervention is permissible only in one case: if during a conflict that has taken the form of armed clashes, massive violations of human rights occur.
Break the conflict. As a result, the emotional background of the conflict changes, the intensity of passions decreases, and the consolidation of forces in society weakens.
Pragmatization of the negotiation process. Dividing a global goal into a number of sequential tasks that are solved together from simple to complex.
Conflict prevention is the sum of efforts aimed at preventing events that lead to conflicts.
In regulating many interethnic conflicts, ethnosociologists acted as experts and often participants in the negotiation process. At the Center and in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, ethnosociologists participated in the preparation of laws regulating interethnic relations, preventing interethnic conflicts, and carried out a humanistic mission, helping to carry out public diplomacy actions.
3.2 The role of sociologists in preventing and resolving conflicts between ethnic groups
When resolving conflicts, the tasks of ethnosociologists are: identifying and testing hypotheses about the causes of the conflict, assessing the driving forces of the conflict, the mass participation of groups in one or another scenario, assessing the consequences of decisions made. Sociologists often took part in negotiation processes.
To prevent conflicts, it is necessary, first of all, to have as much information as possible about the influence of the ethnic factor on the socio-political life of society and groups. Such studies were carried out at VTsIOM (Levada, Gudkov), FOM (Klyamkin), Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Arutunyan, Drobizheva, Guboglo), Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Streletsky).
There is data on changes in the status of ethnic groups, on the representation of nationalities in prestigious strata, and on the pace of social mobility of titular nationalities. There are materials about the value orientations and life values of ethnic groups. All this allows us to judge a possible conflict.
Conclusion
In modern conditions, the vast majority of conflicts cannot be resolved using the mechanisms of classical international strategy (military suppression, “balance of power”, “balance of fear”, etc.). The new generation of conflicts, of course, have common features. One can also establish their similarities with resistance movements, partisan and religious wars, national-ethnic clashes and other types of non-state international conflicts that have long been known to mankind.
Each conflict should be considered as unique, but we cannot exclude the possibility of comparative research and finding some (relatively) general trends in the development of conflicts, which may provide a certain chance in finding ways to resolve them.
The similarity of conflicts is primarily expressed in the lack of any clarity regarding the nature and ways of their resolution, their “wrongness” in terms of the relationship between the goals and means of their participants, and the danger they pose to the population. Each conflict is multidimensional and contains not one, but several crises and contradictions, each unique in nature. Negotiations, consultations, mediation, agreements and other traditional means of settlement in modern conflicts show very low effectiveness. Their effectiveness is determined by the possibilities of formalizing the conflict, giving it official status, clearly defining its causes and identifying the undisputed legitimate representatives of the parties.
Attempts to resolve conflicts face the problem of the elusive nature of success. There is not always an understanding that success in this area is almost always limited. In addition, recently there has been a clear fascination with military operations. However, a fairly large part of conflicts cannot be resolved through peacekeeping operations, much less coercive operations using military force.
All of the conflict resolution methods discussed are more suitable for trying to resolve an existing conflict. But, it seems to me, the conflict must be resolved at a very early stage, when the prerequisites for its emergence only appear. And to a greater extent, the emergence and prevention, for example, of interstate conflicts depends on those who are in power, on the policies they pursue, as well as on their views on a particular situation.
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