Where does the edge of space begin? Where does space begin? How many kilometers from earth to weightlessness

Borders

There is no clear boundary, because the atmosphere is gradually rarefied as it moves away from the earth's surface, and there is still no consensus on what to consider as a factor in the beginning of space. If the temperature were constant, then the pressure would change exponentially from 100 kPa at sea level to zero. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale has established an altitude of 100 km(Karman line), because at this height, in order to create an aerodynamic lift force, it is necessary that the aircraft move at the first cosmic velocity, which loses the meaning of air flight.

solar system

NASA describes a case where a person accidentally ended up in a space close to vacuum (pressure below 1 Pa) due to air leakage from the spacesuit. The person remained conscious for approximately 14 seconds, about the time it takes for oxygen-depleted blood to travel from the lungs to the brain. A full vacuum did not develop inside the suit, and recompression of the test chamber began approximately 15 seconds later. Consciousness returned to the person when the pressure rose to the equivalent height of approximately 4.6 km. Later, a person who was trapped in a vacuum said that he felt and heard air coming out of him, and his last conscious memory was that he felt water boiling on his tongue.

Aviation Week and Space Technology magazine published a letter on February 13, 1995, which told about an incident that occurred on August 16, 1960 during the rise of a stratospheric balloon with an open gondola to a height of 19.5 miles to make a record parachute jump (Project Excelsior "). The pilot's right hand was depressurized, but he decided to continue the ascent. The arm, as might be expected, was extremely painful and could not be used. However, when the pilot returned to the denser layers of the atmosphere, the condition of the hand returned to normal.

Borders on the way to space

Sea level - 101.3 kPa (1 atm.; 760 mmHg;) atmospheric pressure.
4.7 km - MFA requires additional oxygen supply for pilots and passengers.
5.0 km - 50% of atmospheric pressure at sea level.
5.3 km - half of the entire mass of the atmosphere lies below this height.
6 km - the boundary of permanent human habitation.
7 km - the limit of adaptability to a long stay.
8.2 km - the border of death.
8.848 km - the highest point of the Earth Mount Everest - the limit of accessibility on foot.
9 km - the limit of adaptability to short-term breathing of atmospheric air.
12 km - breathing air is equivalent to being in space (the same time of loss of consciousness ~ 10-20 s); limit of short-term breathing with pure oxygen; ceiling of subsonic passenger liners.
15 km - breathing pure oxygen is equivalent to being in space.
16 km - when in a high-altitude suit, additional pressure is needed in the cockpit. 10% of the atmosphere remained overhead.
10-18 km - the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere at different latitudes (tropopause).
19 km - the brightness of the dark purple sky at the zenith is 5% of the brightness of the clear blue sky at sea level (74.3-75 versus 1500 candles per m²), the brightest stars and planets can be seen during the day.
19.3 km - the beginning of space for the human body Boiling water at human body temperature. The internal bodily fluids at this altitude are not yet boiling, as the body generates enough internal pressure to prevent this effect, but saliva and tears may begin to boil with the formation of foam, eyes swell.
20 km - upper limit of the biosphere: the limit of spores and bacteria being lifted into the atmosphere by air currents.
20 km - the intensity of the primary cosmic radiation begins to prevail over the secondary (born in the atmosphere).
20 km - ceiling of hot air balloons (hot air balloons) (19,811 m).
25 km - during the day you can navigate by bright stars.
25-26 km - the maximum height of the steady flight of existing jet aircraft (practical ceiling).
15-30 km - the ozone layer at different latitudes.
34.668 km - a record altitude for a balloon (stratospheric balloon) controlled by two stratonauts.
35 km - beginning of space for water or the triple point of water: at this height, water boils at 0 ° C, and above it cannot be in liquid form.
37.65 km - a record for the height of existing turbojet aircraft (dynamic ceiling).
38.48 km (52,000 steps) - upper limit of the atmosphere in the 11th century: the first scientific determination of the height of the atmosphere by the duration of twilight (arab. scientist Algazen, 965-1039).
39 km - a record for the height of a human-controlled stratospheric balloon (Red Bull Stratos).
45 km is the theoretical limit for a ramjet.
48 km - the atmosphere does not weaken the ultraviolet rays of the Sun.
50 km - the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere (stratopause).
51.82 km is the altitude record for a gas powered unmanned balloon.
55 km - the atmosphere does not affect cosmic radiation.
70 km - upper limit of the atmosphere in 1714 according to the calculation of Edmund Holley (Halley) based on the data of climbers, Boyle's law and observations of meteors.
80 km - the boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere (mesopause).
80.45 km (50 mi) - the official height of the border of space in the United States.
100 km - official international boundary between atmosphere and space- the Karman line, which defines the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. Aerodynamic surfaces (wings) starting from this height do not make sense, since the flight speed to create lift becomes higher than the first cosmic speed and the atmospheric aircraft becomes a space satellite.
100 km - recorded atmospheric boundary in 1902: discovery of the Kennelly-Heaviside ionized layer reflecting radio waves 90-120 km.
118 km - transition from atmospheric wind to charged particle flows.
122 km (400,000 ft) - the first noticeable manifestations of the atmosphere during the return to Earth from orbit: the oncoming air begins to turn the Space Shuttle nose in the direction of travel.
120-130 km - a satellite in a circular orbit with such a height can make no more than one revolution.
200 km is the lowest possible orbit with short-term stability (up to several days).
320 km - recorded atmospheric boundary in 1927: discovery of Appleton's radio-wave-reflecting layer.
350 km is the lowest possible orbit with long-term stability (up to several years).
690 km - the boundary between the thermosphere and the exosphere.
1000-1100 km - the maximum height of the auroras, the last manifestation of the atmosphere visible from the Earth's surface (but usually well-marked auroras occur at altitudes of 90-400 km).
2000 km - the atmosphere does not affect satellites and they can exist in orbit for many millennia.
36,000 km - considered in the first half of the 20th century, the theoretical limit of the existence of the atmosphere. If the entire atmosphere rotated uniformly with the Earth, then from this height at the equator the centrifugal force of rotation would exceed gravity and the air particles that went beyond this boundary would scatter in different directions.
930,000 km - the radius of the Earth's gravitational sphere and the maximum height of the existence of its satellites. Above 930,000 km, the attraction of the Sun begins to prevail and it will pull the bodies that have risen above.
21 million km - at this distance, the gravitational influence of the Earth practically disappears.
Several tens of billions of kilometers are the limits of the range of the solar wind.
15-20 trillion km - gravitational boundaries solar system, the maximum range of existence of planets.

Conditions for entering the Earth's orbit

In order to enter orbit, the body must reach a certain speed. Space velocities for the Earth:

First space velocity - 7.910 km/s
Second escape velocity - 11.168 km/s
Third escape velocity - 16.67 km/s
The fourth space velocity - about 550 km / s

If any of the speeds is less than the specified one, then the body will not be able to enter orbit. The first to realize that to achieve such speeds using any chemical fuel, a multi-stage liquid-fueled rocket was needed was Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky.

Notes

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Andrey Kislyakov, for RIA Novosti.

It would seem that it is not so significant where the "Earth" ends and space begins. Meanwhile, disputes over the meaning of the height, beyond which boundless outer space already stretches, have not subsided for almost a century. The latest data, obtained through a thorough study and generalization of a large amount of information for almost two years, allowed Canadian scientists in the first half of April to declare that space begins at an altitude of 118 km. From the point of view of the impact of cosmic energy on the Earth, this number is very important for climatologists and geophysicists.

On the other hand, it is unlikely that it will be possible soon to finally end this dispute by establishing a single border that suits everyone by the whole world. The fact is that there are several parameters that are considered fundamental for the corresponding assessment.

A bit of history. The fact that hard cosmic radiation acts outside the earth's atmosphere has long been known. However, it was not possible to clearly define the boundaries of the atmosphere, measure the strength of electromagnetic flows and obtain their characteristics before the launch of artificial earth satellites. Meanwhile, the main space task of both the USSR and the United States in the mid-1950s was the preparation of a manned flight. This, in turn, required a clear knowledge of the conditions just outside the earth's atmosphere.

Already on the second Soviet satellite, launched in November 1957, there were sensors for measuring solar ultraviolet, X-ray and other types of cosmic radiation. Fundamentally important for the successful implementation of manned flights was the discovery in 1958 of two radiation belts around the Earth.

But back to the 118 km established by Canadian scientists from the University of Calgary. And why, in fact, such a height? After all, the so-called "Karman Line", unofficially recognized as the boundary between the atmosphere and space, "passes" along the 100-kilometer mark. It is there that the air density is already so low that the aircraft must move at the first space velocity (about 7.9 km / s) to prevent falling to Earth. But in this case, he no longer needs aerodynamic surfaces (wing, stabilizers). Based on this, the World Aeronautics Association has adopted an altitude of 100 km as the watershed between aeronautics and astronautics.

But the degree of rarefaction of the atmosphere is far from the only parameter that determines the boundary of space. Moreover, the “terrestrial air” does not end at an altitude of 100 km. And how, say, does the state of a substance change with increasing height? Maybe this is the main thing that determines the beginning of the cosmos? Americans, in turn, consider anyone who has been at an altitude of 80 km, a true astronaut.

In Canada, they decided to identify the value of a parameter that seems to matter for our entire planet. They decided to find out at what height the influence of atmospheric winds ends and the influence of cosmic particle flows begins.

For this purpose, a special device STII (Super - Thermal Ion Imager) was developed in Canada, which was launched into orbit from a cosmodrome in Alaska two years ago. With its help, it was found that the boundary between the atmosphere and space is located at an altitude of 118 kilometers above sea level.

At the same time, data collection lasted only five minutes, while the satellite carrying it rose to its assigned altitude of 200 km. This is the only way to collect information, since this mark is too high for stratospheric probes and too low for satellite research. For the first time, the study took into account all the components, including the movement of air in the uppermost layers of the atmosphere.

Instruments like the STII will be used to continue exploration of the border regions of space and the atmosphere as a payload on satellites of the European Space Agency, the active life of which will be four years. This is important because Continued research on the border regions will make it possible to learn many new facts about the impact of cosmic radiation on the Earth's climate, about the impact that ion energy has on our environment.

The change in the intensity of solar radiation, directly related to the appearance of spots on our star, somehow affects the temperature of the atmosphere, and the followers of the STII apparatus can be used to detect this influence. Already today, 12 different analyzing devices have been developed in Calgary, designed to study various parameters of the near space.

But it is not necessary to say that the beginning of space was limited to 118 km. Indeed, for their part, those who consider a height of 21 million kilometers to be real space are right! It is there that the influence of the Earth's gravitational field practically disappears. What awaits researchers at such a cosmic depth? After all, we did not climb further than the Moon (384,000 km).

The distance between the Earth and the Moon is huge, but it seems tiny compared to the scale of space.

Outer space, as you know, is quite large, and therefore astronomers do not use to measure them metric system familiar to us. In the case of distances up to (384,000 km), kilometers can still be applied, but if we express the distance to Pluto in these units, we get 4,250,000,000 km, which is already less convenient for recording and calculations. For this reason, astronomers use other distance units, which you can read about below.

The smallest of these units is (a.u.). Historically, it so happened that one astronomical unit is equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, otherwise - the average distance from the surface of our planet to the Sun. This method of measurement was most suitable for studying the structure of the solar system in the 17th century. Its exact value is 149,597,870,700 meters. Today, the astronomical unit is used in calculations with relatively short lengths. That is, when studying distances within the solar system or planetary systems.

Light year

A slightly larger unit of length in astronomy is . It is equal to the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Earth, Julian year. The zero influence of gravitational forces on its trajectory is also implied. One light year is about 9,460,730,472,580 km or 63,241 AU. This unit of length is used only in popular science literature for the reason that a light year gives the reader a rough idea of distances on a galactic scale. However, due to its inaccuracy and inconvenience, the light year is practically not used in scientific work.

Parsec

The most practical and convenient for astronomical calculations is such a distance unit as . To understand her physical meaning, one should consider such a phenomenon as parallax. Its essence lies in the fact that when the observer moves relative to two bodies distant from each other, the apparent distance between these bodies also changes. In the case of stars, the following happens. When the Earth moves in its orbit around the Sun, the visual position of the stars close to us changes somewhat, while the distant stars, acting as a background, remain in the same places. A change in the position of a star when the Earth shifts by one radius of its orbit is called annual parallax, which is measured in arcseconds.

Then one parsec is equal to the distance to the star, the annual parallax of which is equal to one arc second - the unit of angle in astronomy. Hence the name "parsec", combined from two words: "parallax" and "second". The exact value of a parsec is 3.0856776 10 16 meters or 3.2616 light years. 1 parsec is equal to approximately 206,264.8 AU. e.

Method of laser location and radar

These two modern methods are used to determine the exact distance to an object within the solar system. It is produced in the following way. With the help of a powerful radio transmitter, a directed radio signal is sent towards the object of observation. After that, the body beats off the received signal and returns to Earth. The time it takes the signal to complete the path determines the distance to the object. Radar accuracy is only a few kilometers. In the case of laser location, instead of a radio signal, a light beam is sent by the laser, which allows you to determine the distance to the object by similar calculations. The accuracy of laser location is achieved down to fractions of a centimeter.

Trigonometric parallax method

Most simple method measuring the distance to distant space objects is the trigonometric parallax method. It is based on school geometry and consists of the following. Let's draw a segment (basis) between two points on the earth's surface. Let's select an object in the sky, the distance to which we intend to measure, and define it as the top of the resulting triangle. Next, we measure the angles between the basis and the straight lines drawn from the selected points to the body in the sky. And knowing the side and two corners of a triangle adjacent to it, you can find all its other elements.

The value of the selected basis determines the accuracy of the measurement. After all, if the star is located at a very large distance from us, then the measured angles will be almost perpendicular to the basis and the error in their measurement can significantly affect the accuracy of the calculated distance to the object. Therefore, one should choose as the basis the most distant points on . Initially, the radius of the Earth acted as a basis. That is, the observers were located at different points the globe and measured the mentioned angles, and the angle located opposite the basis was called the horizontal parallax. However, later, as a basis, they began to take a greater distance - the average radius of the Earth's orbit (astronomical unit), which made it possible to measure the distance to more distant objects. In this case, the angle opposite the basis is called the annual parallax.

This method is not very practical for studies from the Earth for the reason that due to the interference of the Earth's atmosphere, it is not possible to determine the annual parallax of objects located more than 100 parsecs away.

However, in 1989, the Hipparcos Space Telescope was launched by the European Space Agency, which made it possible to identify stars at a distance of up to 1000 parsecs. As a result of the data obtained, scientists were able to compile a three-dimensional map of the distribution of these stars around the Sun. In 2013, ESA launched the next satellite, Gaia, which is 100 times more accurate, allowing all-star observation. If human eyes had the accuracy of the Gaia telescope, then we would be able to see the diameter of a human hair from a distance of 2,000 km.

Method of standard candles

To determine the distances to stars in other galaxies and the distances to these galaxies themselves, the standard candle method is used. As you know, the farther the light source is from the observer, the dimmer it seems to the observer. Those. the illumination of a light bulb at a distance of 2 m will be 4 times less than at a distance of 1 meter. This is the principle by which the distance to objects is measured using the standard candle method. Thus, drawing an analogy between a light bulb and a star, one can compare the distances to light sources with known powers.

As standard candles in astronomy, objects are used, (an analogue of the power of the source) of which is known. It can be any kind of star. To determine its luminosity, astronomers measure the surface temperature based on its frequency. electromagnetic radiation. Then, knowing the temperature, which makes it possible to determine the spectral type of a star, its luminosity is determined using . Then, having the values of luminosity and measuring the brightness (apparent value) of the star, you can calculate the distance to it. Such a standard candle allows you to get general idea about the distance to the galaxy in which it is located.

However, this method is quite laborious and not very accurate. Therefore, it is more convenient for astronomers to use cosmic bodies with unique features as standard candles, for which the luminosity is known initially.

Unique standard candles

The most used standard candles are variable pulsating stars. Having studied physical features of these objects, astronomers have learned that Cepheids have an additional characteristic - a pulsation period that can be easily measured and which corresponds to a certain luminosity.

As a result of observations, scientists are able to measure the brightness and period of pulsation of such variable stars, and hence the luminosity, which makes it possible to calculate the distance to them. Finding a Cepheid in another galaxy makes it possible to relatively accurately and simply determine the distance to the galaxy itself. Therefore, this type of star is often referred to as the "beacons of the universe."

Despite the fact that the Cepheid method is most accurate at distances up to 10,000,000 pc, its error can reach 30%. To improve accuracy, as many Cepheids as possible in one galaxy will be required, but even in this case, the error is reduced to at least 10%. The reason for this is the inaccuracy of the period-luminosity dependence.

Cepheids are the "beacons of the universe".

In addition to Cepheids, other variable stars with known period-luminosity relationships can also be used as standard candles, as well as supernovae with known luminosity for the greatest distances. Close in accuracy to the Cepheid method is the method with red giants as standard candles. As it turned out, the brightest red giants have an absolute magnitude in a fairly narrow range, which allows you to calculate the luminosity.

Distances in numbers

Distances in the solar system:

1 a.u. from Earth to = 500 sv. seconds or 8.3 sv. minutes
30 a. e. from the Sun to = 4.15 light hours
132 a.u. from the Sun - this is the distance to the spacecraft "", was noted on July 28, 2015. This object is the most remote of those that have been constructed by man.

Distances in Milky Way and beyond:

1.3 parsecs (268144 AU or 4.24 light years) from the Sun to - the star closest to us
8,000 parsecs (26 thousand light years) - the distance from the Sun to the Milky Way
30,000 parsecs (97 thousand light years) - the approximate diameter of the Milky Way
770,000 parsecs (2.5 million light years) - the distance to the nearest large galaxy -
300,000,000 pc - scales in which is almost uniform
4,000,000,000 pc (4 Gigaparsec) - the edge of the observable universe. This is the distance traveled by the light recorded on Earth. Today, the objects that emitted it, taking into account, are located at a distance of 14 gigaparsecs (45.6 billion light years).

Andrey Kislyakov, for RIA Novosti.

Mankind treats the cosmos as something unknown and mysterious. Space is a void that exists between celestial bodies. The atmospheres of solid and gaseous celestial bodies (and planets) do not have a fixed upper limit, but gradually become thinner as the distance to the celestial body increases. At a certain height, this is called the beginning of space. What is the temperature in space, and other information will be discussed in this article.

In contact with

General concept

In outer space there is high vacuum with low particle density. There is no air in space. What is space made of? This is not empty space, it contains:

gases;
space dust;
elementary particles (neutrinos, cosmic rays);
electric, magnetic and gravitational fields;
also electromagnetic waves (photons).

An absolute vacuum, or almost complete vacuum, makes space transparent, and makes it possible to observe extremely distant objects such as other galaxies. But the haze of interstellar matter can also seriously obscure the idea of them.

Important! The concept of space should not be identified with the Universe, which includes all space objects, even stars and planets.

Travel or transport in or through outer space is called space travel.

Where does space begin

Can't say for sure what height does it start space. International aviation federation defines the edge of space at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, the Karman line.

It is necessary that the aircraft move at the first cosmic speed, then the lifting force will be achieved. The US Air Force defined an altitude of 50 miles (about 80 km) as the beginning of space.

Both heights are proposed as limits for the upper layers. On the international level there is no definition of the edge of space.

The Venus Pocket line is located at about 250 km altitude, Mars - about 80 km. For celestial bodies that have little or no atmosphere, such as Mercury, Earth's moon, or an asteroid, space begins right on the surface body.

When the spacecraft re-enters the atmosphere, the height of the atmosphere is determined to calculate the trajectory so that its influence to the re-entry point is minimal. Typically, the re-entry level is equal to or higher than the Pockets line. NASA uses a value of 400,000 feet (about 122 km).

What is the pressure and temperature in space

Absolute vacuum unattainable even in space. Since there are several hydrogen atoms for a certain volume. At the same time, the magnitude of the cosmic vacuum is not enough for a person to burst, like a balloon that has been pumped over. This will not happen for the simple reason that our body is strong enough to hold its shape, but it still will not save the body from death.

And it's not about durability. And not even in the blood, although it contains about 50% water, it is in a closed system under pressure. Maximum - saliva, tears, and liquids that wet the alveoli in the lungs will boil. Roughly speaking, a person will die from suffocation. Even at relatively low altitudes in the atmosphere, conditions are hostile to the human body.

Scientists are arguing: complete vacuum or not in space, but still tend to believe that the full value is unattainable due to hydrogen molecules.

The altitude at which atmospheric pressure corresponds to the vapor pressure of water at human body temperature, ncalled the Armstrong line. It is located at an altitude of about 19.14 km. In 1966, an astronaut tested a spacesuit and was subjected to decompression at an altitude of 36,500 meters. In 14 seconds, he turned off, but did not explode, but survived.

Maximum and minimum values

Initial temperature in open space, set by background radiation big bang, is 2.73 kelvin (K), which is equal to -270.45 °C.

This is the coldest temperature in space. The space itself has no temperature, but only the matter that is in it, and the acting radiation. To be more precise, then absolute zero is a temperature of -273.15 °C. But within the framework of such a science as thermodynamics, this is impossible.

Because of the radiation in space, the temperature is kept at 2.7 K. The temperature of the vacuum is measured in units of the kinetic activity of the gas, just like on Earth. The radiation filling the vacuum has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas, meaning that the gas and radiation are not in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Absolute zero is what it is. lowest temperature but in space.

Matter locally distributed in space can have very high temperatures. The Earth's atmosphere at high altitude reaches a temperature of about 1400 K. Intergalactic plasma gas with a density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic meter can reach temperatures of several million K. The high temperature in outer space is due to the speed of particles. However, a general thermometer will read temperatures near absolute zero because the particle density is too low to allow measurable heat transfer.

The entire observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang. It is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation. There is a large number of neutrinos, called the cosmic neutrino background. Current black body temperature background radiation is about 3-4 K. The temperature of a gas in outer space is always at least the background radiation temperature, but can be much higher. For example, the corona has temperatures in excess of 1.2-2.6 million K.

Human body

There is another misconception related to temperature, which touches the human body. As you know, our body on average consists of 70% water. The heat that it releases in a vacuum has nowhere to go, therefore, heat exchange in space does not occur and a person overheats.

But before he does it, he will die from decompression. For this reason, one of the problems that astronauts face is heat. And the skin of the ship, which is in orbit under the open sun, can become very hot. The temperature in space in Celsius can be 260 °C on a metal surface.

Solids in near-Earth or interplanetary space experience large radiant heat on the side facing the sun. On the sunny side, or when bodies are in the Earth's shadow, they experience extreme cold because they release their thermal energy into space.

For example, an astronaut's spacewalk suit on the International Space Station would have a temperature of about 100°C on the side facing the sun.

On the night side of the Earth, solar radiation is obscured, and the earth's weak infrared radiation causes the suit to cool down. Its temperature in space in Celsius will be about -100 °C.

Heat exchange

Important! Heat transfer in space is possible by one single type - radiation.

This is a tricky process and its principle is used to cool the surfaces of the apparatus. The surface absorbs radiant energy that falls on it, and at the same time radiates energy into space, which is equal to the sum of the absorbed and supplied from the inside.

It is not known exactly what the pressure in space could be, but it is very small.

In most galaxies, observations show that 90% of the mass is in an unknown form called dark matter, which interacts with other matter through gravitational but not electromagnetic forces.

Much of the mass energy in the observable universe is the poorly understood vacuum energy of space, which astronomers call dark energy. intergalactic space occupies most of the volume of the universe, but even galaxies and star systems are composed almost entirely of empty space.

Research

Humans started during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude ballooning and then manned rocket launches.

Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin from Soviet Union in 1961, and unmanned spacecraft since then got to all known.

Due to the high cost of spaceflight, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon.

Outer space is a difficult environment for human study due to the double hazards: vacuum and radiation. Microgravity also negatively affects human physiology, which causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to these health concerns and environment, the economic cost of putting objects, including people, into space is very high.

How cold is it in space? Could the temperature be even lower?

Temperatures in different parts of the universe

Output

Since light has a finite speed, the dimensions of the directly observable universe are limited. This leaves open the question of whether the universe is finite or infinite. Space continues to be a mystery to man full of phenomena. To many questions modern science so far unable to answer. But what temperature in space has already been found out, and what pressure in space can be measured over time.