Iran under the rule of the Qajar dynasty. Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. The Young Turk Revolution Persia in the 18th and 19th centuries briefly

Afghanistan, Persia (Iran) and Tibet under the rule of Rus' 1907. Russian-English agreement on the division of Afghanistan, Persia (Iran) and Tibet into zones

Often today we can hear a story about a country in the southwestern part of Asia called Persia. What country has now replaced it with Since 1935, Persia has officially become known as Iran.

In ancient times, this state was the center of a huge empire, the territory of which stretched from Egypt itself to the Indus River.

Geography

It is worth saying that at one time the state of Persia did not have clear boundaries. It is rather problematic to determine which country is now located on these lands. Even modern Iran is only approximately located on the territory of Ancient Persia. The fact is that in certain periods this empire was located in most of the world known at that time. But there were also worse years, when the territory of Persia was divided among themselves by local rulers who were hostile to each other.

The relief of most of the territory of present-day Persia is a high (1200 m) highland, which is crossed by a chain of stone ridges and individual peaks rising up to 5500 m. In the northern and western parts of this area are the Elbrus and Zagros mountain ranges. They are located in the form of the letter "V", framing the highlands.

West of Persia was Mesopotamia. This is the birthplace of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. At one time, the states of this empire largely influenced the culture of the still nascent country of Persia.

Story

Persia (Iran) is a country with a great past. Its history includes aggressive and defensive wars, uprisings and revolutions, as well as brutal suppression of all political speeches. But at the same time, Ancient Iran is the birthplace of the great people of that time, who led the art and culture of the country to flourish, and also built buildings of amazing beauty, the architecture of which still amazes us with its magnificence. The history of Persia has a large number of ruling dynasties. It is simply impossible to count them. Each of these dynasties introduced its own laws and rules, which no one simply dared to break.

Historical periods

Persia experienced a lot on the way of its formation. But the main milestones of its development are two periods. One is pre-Muslim and the other is Muslim. The Islamization of Ancient Iran was the cause of fundamental changes in its political, social and cultural sphere. However, this does not mean the disappearance of the old spiritual values. Not only were they not lost, but they also largely influenced the new culture that originated in the country at the turn of two historical periods. In addition, many pre-Muslim rituals and traditions have been preserved in Iran to this day.

Achaemenid rule

As a state, Ancient Iran began its existence with Cyrus II. This ruler became the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, which was in power from 550 to 330 BC. BC e. Under Cyrus II, the two largest Indo-Asiatic tribes, the Persians and the Medes, were united for the first time. This was the period of the greatest power of Persia. Its territory extended to the Central and Indus Valley and Egypt. The most important archaeological and historical monument of the Achaemenid era are the ruins of the capital of Persia - Persepolis.

Here is the tomb of Cyrus II, as well as an inscription carved by Darius I on the Behistun rock. At one time, Persepolis was burned by Alexander the Great during his campaign to conquer Iran. It was the conqueror who put an end to the great Achaemenid Empire. Unfortunately, there is no written evidence of this era. They were destroyed by order of Alexander the Great.

Hellenistic period

From 330 to 224 BC e. Persia was in a state of decline. Along with the country, its culture also degraded. During this period, Ancient Iran was under the rule of the Greek Seleucid dynasty ruling at that time, being part of the state of the same name. The culture and language of Persia have changed. They were influenced by the Greeks. At the same time, Iranian culture did not die. She influenced the settlers from Hellas. But this happened only in those areas where there were no self-sufficient and large Greek communities.

Parthian Kingdom

Years passed, the power of the Greeks in Persia came to an end. The history of ancient Iran entered its new stage. The country became part of the Parthian kingdom. The Arshakid dynasty ruled here, considering themselves the descendants of the Achaemenids. These rulers liberated Persia from Greek rule and also protected it from Roman invasion and nomadic raids.

During this period, the Iranian folk epic was created, a large number of plots with heroic characters appeared. One of them was Rustem. This Iranian hero is in many ways similar to Hercules.

During the Parthian period, the feudal system was strengthened. This weakened Persia. As a result, it was conquered by the Sassanids. A new stage in the history of ancient Iran began.

Sassanid state

Between 224 and 226 AD. e. the last Parthian king Artaban V was overthrown from the throne. The power was seized by the Sassanid dynasty. During this period, the borders of Ancient Iran were not only restored, but also expanded to the western regions of China, including the Punjab and Transcaucasia. The dynasty waged a constant struggle with the Romans, and one of its representatives - Shapur I - even managed to capture their emperor Valerian. Constant wars were waged by the Sassanid dynasty with Byzantium.
During this period, cities developed in Persia, and the central government was strengthened. Then Zoroastrianism arose, which became the official religion of the country. In the era of the Sassanids, a four-stage system of the existing administrative division and the stratification of all strata of society into 4 estates were developed and approved.

In the era of the Sassanids, Christianity penetrated into Persia, which was negatively met by the Zoroastrian priests. At the same time, some other oppositional religious movements appeared. Among them are Mazdakism and Manichaeism.

The most famous representative of the Sassanid dynasty was Shah Khosrov I Anushirvan. The literal translation of his name means "with an immortal soul." His reign lasted from 531 to 579. Khosrow I was so famous that his fame survived for many centuries after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. This ruler remained in the memory of his descendants as a great reformer. Khosrow I showed great interest in philosophy and science. In some Iranian sources, there is even a comparison with Plato's "king-philosopher".

The Sassanids were significantly weakened by constant wars with Rome. In 641, the country lost a major battle to the Arabs. The Sasanian stage of Iranian history ended with the death of the last representative of this dynasty, Yazdegerd III. Persia entered the Islamic period of its development.

Rule of local dynasties

The Arab caliphate gradually expanded to the east. At the same time, his central authority in Baghdad and Damascus could no longer maintain strict control over all the provinces. This led to the emergence of local dynasties in Iran. The first of these is the Tahirides. Its representatives ruled from 821 to 873. in Khorasan. This dynasty was replaced by the Saffarids. Their dominance in the territory of Khorasan, southern Iran and Herat lasted throughout the second half of the ninth century. Then the throne was seized by the Samanids. This dynasty proclaimed itself the descendants of the Parthian military leader Bahram Chubin. The Samanids held the throne for more than fifty years, having extended their power over large territories. The country of Iran during the years of their reign ran from the eastern outskirts of the highlands to the Aral Sea and the Zagros ridge. The center of the state was Bukhara.

A little later, two more clans ruled on the territory of Persia. In the second half of the tenth century, these were the Ziyarids. They controlled the territory of the coast of the Caspian Sea. The Ziyarids became famous for their patronage of art and literature. During the same period, the Bund dynasty was in power in central Iran. They conquered Baghdad and Force, Khuzistan and Kerman, Ray and Hamadan.

Local Iranian dynasties achieved power in the same way. They seized the throne, raising an armed rebellion.

Ghaznavid and Seljuk dynasties

Starting from the eighth century, Turkic nomadic tribes began to penetrate. Gradually, the way of life of this people became sedentary. New settlements sprang up. Alp-Tegin - one of the Turkic tribal leaders - began to serve the Sassanids. In 962, he took power and ruled over the newly created state, the capital of which was the city of Ghazni. Alp-Tegin founded a new dynasty. The Ghaznavits held power for a little over a hundred years. One of its representatives - Mahmud Ghaznevi - kept the territory from Mesopotamia to India under vigilant control. The same ruler settled in Kharasan a tribe of Oghuz Turks. Subsequently, their leader Seljuk rebelled and overthrew the Ghaznavid dynasty. Rey was declared the capital of Iran.

The Seljuk dynasty belonged to the orthodox Muslims. She subjugated all the local rulers, but for many years she waged constant wars for her dominance.
During the years of the Seljukids' rule, architecture flourished. During the reign of the dynasty, hundreds of madrasas, mosques, public buildings and palaces were erected. But at the same time, the reign of the Seljukids was hampered by constant uprisings in the provinces, as well as invasions of other tribes of the Turks, who were moving towards the western lands. Constant wars weakened the state, and by the end of the first quarter of the twelfth century it began to disintegrate.

Mongol domination

The invasion of Genghis Khan's troops did not pass Iran either. The history of the country tells us that in 1219 this commander managed to capture Khorezm, and then, moving to the west, plundered Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand, Nashapur and Merv.

His grandson, Hulagu Khan, again plunged into Iran in 1256 and, taking Baghdad by storm, destroyed the Abbas Caliphate. The conqueror took the title of ilkhan, becoming the ancestor of the Khulaguid dynasty. He and his successors adopted the religion, culture and way of life of the Iranian people. Over the years, the position of the Mongols in Persia began to weaken. They were forced to wage constant wars with feudal rulers and representatives of local dynasties.

Between 1380 and 1395 the territory of the Iranian Highlands was captured by Amir Timur (Tamerlane). He also conquered all the lands that were adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea. Descendants until 1506 kept the state of the Timurids. Further, it was subordinated to the Uzbek Sheibanid dynasty.

History of Iran from 15th to 18th centuries

Over the following centuries, wars for power continued to be waged in Persia. So, in the 15th century, the Ak-Koyundu and Kara-Aoyundu tribes fought among themselves. In 1502, Ismail I seized power. This monarch was the first representative of the Safavids, an Azerbaijani dynasty. During the reign of Ismail I and his successors, Iran revived its military power and became an economically prosperous country.

The Safavid state remained strong until the death of its last ruler, Abbas I, in 1629. In the east, the Uzbeks were expelled from Kharasan, and in the west, the Ottomans were defeated. Iran, whose map pointed to the impressive territories belonging to it, subjugated Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It existed within these boundaries until the nineteenth century.

On the territory of Persia, wars were fought against the Turks and Afghans, who sought to conquer the country. These were the times when the Afshar dynasty was in power. The southern lands of Iran from 1760 to 1779 were ruled by the dynasty founded by Zendov Kerim Khan. Then she was overthrown by the Turkic tribe of Qajars. Under the leadership of its leader, it conquered the lands of the entire Iranian highlands.

Qajar dynasty

At the very beginning of the nineteenth century, Iran lost the provinces that were located on the territory of modern Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. This was the result of the fact that the Qajar dynasty was never able to create a strong state apparatus, national army and a unified system of tax collections. The power of its representatives turned out to be too weak and could not resist the imperial desires of Russia and Great Britain. The lands of Afghanistan and Turkestan came under the control of these great powers in the second half of the nineteenth century. At the same time, Iran unwittingly began to serve as an arena for Russian-British confrontation.

The last of the Qajar family was a constitutional monarch. The dynasty was forced to adopt this main law under the pressure of the strikes held in the country. Two powers - Russia and Great Britain - opposed the constitutional regime of Iran. In 1907 they signed an agreement to partition Persia. Its northern part went to Russia. Great Britain exerted its influence in the southern lands. The central part of the country was left as a neutral zone.

Iran at the beginning of the 20th century

The Qajar dynasty was overthrown in a coup d'état. It was led by General Reza Khan. A new Pahlavi dynasty came to power. This name, which in Parthian means "noble, brave", was intended to emphasize the Iranian origin of the family.

During the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, Persia experienced its national revival. This was facilitated by numerous radical reforms carried out by the government. The beginning of industrialization was laid. Large investments were allocated for the development of industry. Highways and railways were built. The development and production of oil was actively carried out. Sharia courts have been replaced by legal proceedings. Thus, in the early 20th century, extensive modernization began in Persia.

In 1935, the state of Persia changed its name. Which country is now its successor? Iran. This is the ancient self-name of Persia, which means "the country of the Aryans" (the highest white race). After 1935, the pre-Islamic past began to revive. Small and large cities of Iran began to be renamed. They restored pre-Islamic monuments.

The overthrow of royal power

The last Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty came to the throne in 1941. His reign lasted for 38 years. In conducting his foreign policy, the shah was guided by the opinion of the United States. At the same time, he supported the pro-American regimes that existed in Oman, Somalia and Chad. One of the most prominent opponents of the Shah was the Islamic priest Kma Ruhollah Khomeini. He led revolutionary activity against the current government.

In 1977, the US President forced the Shah to ease his repressions against the opposition. As a result, numerous parties of critics of the existing regime began to appear in Iran. The Islamic Revolution was being prepared. The activities carried out by the opposition aggravated the protest moods of the Iranian society, which opposed the country's domestic political course, the oppression of the church and foreign pro-American policy.

The Islamic Revolution began after the events of January 1978. It was then that the police shot down a demonstration of students who opposed a slanderous article about Khomeini published in the state newspaper. The unrest continued throughout the year. The Shah was forced to introduce martial law in the country. However, it was no longer possible to keep the situation under control. In January 1979, the Shah left Iran.
After his flight, a referendum was held in the country. As a result, on April 1, 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran emerged. In December of the same year, the country's updated constitution saw the light of day. This document approved the supreme authority of Imam Khomeini, which, after his death, was to be transferred to his successor. The President of Iran, according to the constitution, stood at the head of political and civil power. Together with him, the country was ruled by the prime minister and an advisory council - the Mejlis. The President of Iran, by law, was the guarantor of the adopted constitution.

Iran today

Persia, known from time immemorial, is a very colorful state. What country today can so accurately correspond to the saying "the East is a delicate matter"? This is confirmed by the entire existence and development of the state in question.

The Islamic Republic of Iran, without any doubt, is unique in its identity. And this distinguishes it from others. The capital of the Republic is the city of Tehran. This is a huge metropolis, which is one of the largest in the world.

Iran is a unique country with a large number of sights, cultural monuments and its own way of life. The republic has 10% of the world's black gold reserves. It is thanks to its oil fields that it is in the top ten exporters of this natural resource.

Persia - what country is it now? Highly religious. More copies of the Holy Quran are published in its printing houses than in all other Muslim countries.

After the Islamic Revolution, the republic headed for universal literacy. The development of education here is going at an accelerated pace.

It's no secret that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Persia was an unusual mixture of old and new traditions, which were embodied in everyday life. Despite the introduction of the latest Western developments, harems, slaves and strange traditions could still be seen here. We invite you to look at photographs of that time, which are not at all like everything that you could imagine.

The last Shahs of the Qajar dynasty struggled to modernize the country. Engineers from Russia built the telegraph, the French trained the army, airplanes appeared in Tehran - at that moment the last word in technology. The pilots, of course, were daredevils, but the girl in the veil and dirty shoes, leaning on the plane in a businesslike way in this picture, looks no less dashing.

Shah Nasser ad-Din, who ruled Persia in the second half of the 19th century, was fond of photography from his youth. He set up his own photo studio in the palace and appointed Anton Sevryugin from Russia, who had a photo studio in Tehran, as the first court photographer. Sevryugin filmed the shah and the courtiers, but the path to the women's half of the palace was closed. Nasser ad-Din personally photographed his harem.

In Persia of those years, the telegraph, airplanes and cameras coexisted with medieval orders. Numerous wives and concubines of the nobility were served by eunuchs and slaves from Africa and the Caucasus. Slavery was banned only in 1929, after the overthrow of the Qajar dynasty.

The harem of Mozafereddin Shah, the son and successor of Nasser ad-Din, has nothing in common with the fantasies of Europeans who have read oriental tales. This is not a "Thousand and One Nights" - no half-naked girls and belly dancers. It looks more like a peaceful family portrait: women look decorously into the lens, mischievous children climbed under the table.

The daughter of Shah Nasser ad-Din, the round-faced beauty Akhtar ad-Daula, poses with the maids. In the second half of the 19th century, Persian ideas about beauty - both female and male - differed markedly from European ones. Noble girls did not seek to lose weight and flaunted lush eyebrows, and sometimes light facial hair.

A group of women with a goat in the andaruni (inner chambers) of the Shah's palace. The veils on their heads matched amazingly with miniskirts that would have caused a scandal in any European capital of the time.

The beloved concubine often appears in photographs taken by Nasser ad-Din, and each time in a new outfit - either in a Persian skirt, or in a European dress, or in a Japanese kimono. The girl was a Circassian beauty and, most likely, a slave.

The Shah's granddaughter Ismat al-Muluk and her relatives make faces in front of the camera. On Instagram, you won’t see anything like that, but in the 19th century, they didn’t joke with photos. For the shot to work, people had to sit motionless in front of the camera with a lean face for several minutes. But the law is not written for princesses, especially in those cases when their own grandfather is hiding under the cover of the cell.

Another photograph of Ismat is also not quite serious. She stands next to her sister, Fakhr al-Taj, while their father, the Shah's son-in-law, lies under a chair.

Next to the granddaughter of Shah Fakhr al-Taj, her mother, the daughter of Shah Nasser ad-Din Ismat ad-Daula, crouched on the bench.

Another granddaughter of the Shah - Ismat al-Muluk with a goat in her arms next to her husband.

Musicians and dances in the town of Selmas.

Despite traditional clothes and head coverings, the girls in the girls' school are studying the most advanced science of the time, and the class is equipped with microscopes - an expensive pleasure.

In the Middle Ages, Iran (Persia) was one of the largest states in Asia. By the beginning of the new time, the Iranian state, located on important strategic and trade routes of the Middle East, united under the rule of the Sefavid dynasty, experienced a period of economic and cultural upsurge, but from the end of the 17th century. it is replaced by a streak of decline.

In 1722, the Afghans invaded Iran, occupying most of its territory, and their leader, Mir-Mahmud, was proclaimed Shah of Iran. The struggle for the expulsion of the Afghans was led by the talented commander Nadir Khan. The Afghans were expelled from Iran. As a result of the aggressive campaigns of Nadir, who was proclaimed Shah in 1736, a vast power arose for a short time, which, in addition to Iran proper, included Afghanistan, Bukhara, Khiva, Northern India, and Transcaucasia. However, this unstable association collapsed after the assassination of Nadir in 1747. Iran proper broke up into several feudal estates that were at war with each other. Iranian domination over the peoples of Transcaucasia weakened, Georgia regained its independence. But the Iranian feudal lords still oppressed Eastern Armenia and Azerbaijan.

By the end of the XVIII - beginning of the XIX century. Iran was a weakened and fragmented feudal state. More than half of the population of Iran itself were various Iranian tribes, over a quarter - Azerbaijanis. In addition, Turkmens, Arabs, Kurds, and others lived in Iran. About a third of the country's population led a nomadic lifestyle. The level of socio-economic development of different parts of the country was not the same. Particularly backward were the vast areas inhabited by nomadic tribes.

Agricultural relations

Feudal ownership of land lay at the basis of the feudal relations prevailing in Iran. As in India, the shah was considered the supreme owner of all land, water, livestock, etc. However, in fact, only his domain was at the disposal of the shah, the income from which went directly to the maintenance of the court, troops, and the central government apparatus. Most of the lands were feudal possessions of feudal lords (at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, ownership of fiefs was less and less associated with serving the shah). As a matter of fact, the lands of nomadic tribes, which were disposed of by the khans of the tribes, also belonged to the same category. A rather significant part of the land was vaqfs, which formally belonged to mosques and holy places, but in fact were at the disposal of the clergy.

In addition to these main land holdings, there were also mulk lands, which were considered the private property of landlords, and sometimes merchants. The possession of these lands was not associated with any vassal duties in relation to the Shah. An insignificant part of the land still remained the private property of other categories of landowners, in some cases peasants.

On the lands of all categories, the peasants were subjected to heavy feudal exploitation. There was a rule according to which the harvest harvested by the tenant peasant was divided into five shares. Four shares were distributed depending on the ownership of land, water, seeds, draft animals. The fifth went to compensate for the labor of the peasant. The peasant gave the landowner from three to four-fifths of the crop. In addition, the peasants carried various natural duties in favor of the khans-landlords, paid numerous taxes.

Formally, the peasant was considered a free person, but debt bondage, arrears, unlimited power of the khans made him enslaved and deprived him of the opportunity to change his place of residence. The fleeing peasants were forced back to their old places. Cruel exploitation led to poverty and ruin of the peasants and the decline of agriculture.

City, craft and trade

As in other Asian countries, in Iran, the peasants often combined agriculture with home crafts, engaged in weaving, carpet making, etc. In Iranian cities, there was a developed craft that retained a medieval organization. The simplest manufactories with the use of hired labor also existed here. Craft workshops and manufactories produced fabrics, carpets, iron and copper products. Part of the production was exported abroad. Internal trade in goods of handicraft and manufactory production was quite widely developed. It was led by small and medium-sized merchants united in guilds.

Although in the more economically developed regions of Iran there were already certain prerequisites for the development of commodity-money relations, the fragmentation of the country, frequent khan revolts, and the arbitrariness of feudal rulers prevented the formation of a new economic order.

Political system. The role of the Shia religion

The feudal political superstructure contributed to the preservation of obsolete orders. The Shah was the supreme and unlimited ruler of the country. As a result of a long internecine struggle of various khan groups at the end of the 18th century. The Qajar dynasty was established in power in Iran.

The first representative of the Qajars on the Shah's throne was Aga-Muhammed, who was crowned in 1796. After the short reign of Aga-Mohammed, Fath-Ali-Shah (1797-1834) came to the throne.

Iran was divided into 30 regions, which were ruled by the sons and relatives of the Shah. The rulers of the regions were almost independent princelings. They collected duties and taxes in their favor, some even minted coins. Often, conflicts and armed clashes broke out between them over disputed territories. The most influential local khans were appointed as the rulers of the districts and districts into which the regions were divided.

The Muslim clergy played an important role in the political life of the country. Unlike the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire - the Sunnis - Iranian Muslims were Shiites (from the Arab, "shi" a - a group of adherents, a party). They believed that the descendants of Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, should lead the Muslims. Therefore, they did not recognize caliphs (in modern times, the Ottoman sultan-caliph) as the supreme leaders of the Muslims. The Shiites denied the sanctity of the Sunnah. They did not recognize the supreme authority of the Shah in matters of faith. This increased the political role of the Shiite clergy, which, under certain conditions, became the center of opposition to the authorities.

The trial was religious in nature. The slightest disobedience on the part of the peasants and artisans was severely punished. Under Agha Muhammad, gouging out of the eyes was a common punishment. Thousands of impoverished blind men roamed the country, with their appearance alone inspiring fear of the Shah's wrath.

The situation of the enslaved peoples was especially unbearable. Iranian feudal lords sought new conquests. In 1795, Agha Mohammed made a campaign against Georgia, during which Tbilisi was savagely plundered, and 20,000 of its inhabitants were taken away and sold into slavery. The Georgian people and other peoples of Transcaucasia sought protection from Russia from the aggression of the Iranian feudal lords.

Iran and European powers

Although the Dutch and English East India Companies back in the 17th century. set up their trading posts on the coast of the Persian Gulf, A at the beginning of the XVIII century. France concluded trade agreements with Iran, until the end of the 18th century. Iran did not yet play an important role in the colonial policy of the European powers. But from the first years XIX V. he was included in the orbit of the aggressive policy of England and France. At that time, Iran attracted

England and France, first of all, as an important strategic foothold in the sharp struggle that they then waged for economic and political predominance in Europe and Asia.

In 1800, the British authorities in India sent a diplomatic mission to Iran, which achieved the signing of a political and commercial treaty beneficial to the British. The Shah of Iran undertook to provide military assistance to England in the event of an Anglo-Afghan clash and not to allow the French into Iran. In turn, the British promised to supply Iran with weapons for military operations against France or Afghanistan. The treaty gave the British important trading privileges. English and Indian merchants were given the right to freely, without paying taxes, settle in all Iranian ports and import duty-free English cloth, iron and steel products and lead.

At the beginning of the XIX century. the contradictions between tsarist Russia and Iran are aggravated. In 1801, Georgia joined Russia, which saved it from the threat of enslavement by the Shah's Iran and Sultan's Turkey. A number of khanates of Dagestan and Azerbaijan passed into Russian citizenship.

Russian tsarism, having established itself in Transcaucasia, sought to acquire political influence in Iran. The Iranian feudal lords did not want to give up their claims to Georgia and the Azerbaijani khanates. The revanchist aspirations of the Iranian feudal lords were used by British and French diplomacy to implement their plans to subjugate Iran and incite it against Russia. In 1804 the French government offered the Shah to conclude an anti-Russian alliance, but the Shah, counting on British help, rejected this proposal.

Anglo-French struggle in Iran. Russo-Iranian War 1804-1813

After the entry of Russian troops into the Ganja Khanate in 1804, a war broke out between Iran and Russia. Relying on the support of the local population, the Russian troops successfully moved forward. The Shah demanded the promised help from the British. However, in 1805 Russia opposed Napoleon and became an ally of England. Under these conditions, England was afraid to openly help Iran against Russia. French diplomacy took advantage of the situation. In May 1807, an Iranian-French treaty was signed, according to which the Shah undertook to interrupt political and trade relations with England, persuade Afghanistan to jointly declare war on England, assist the French army in the event of its campaign against India through Iran, open all ports of the Persian Gulf for French warships. Napoleon, in turn, promised to achieve the transfer of Georgia into the possession of Iran and send weapons and instructors to reorganize the Iranian army.

Soon a large French military mission arrived in Iran, under whose control the reorganization of the Iranian army began to be carried out. When the treaty was ratified, the Shah granted new trading privileges to French merchants.

However, the French failed to realize these advantages. After the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit with Russia, France could not continue to provide open military assistance to Iran against Russia. The British were not slow to take advantage of this. In 1808, two English missions arrived in Iran at once: one from India, the other directly from London. In 1809 a preliminary Anglo-Iranian treaty was signed. Now the Shah pledged to break off all relations with France, and England - to pay annually a large cash subsidy to Iran, as long as the war with Russia continues. British military instructors and weapons arrived in Iran. Pushing Iran to continue the war with Russia, the British sought to establish their control over the Iranian army.

Neither French nor British support had a serious impact on the outcome of the Russo-Iranian war. The reorganization of the Shah's troops under the leadership of British officers could not significantly increase their combat capability. In various regions, especially in Khorasan, rebellions took place against the Shah's power. The population of Transcaucasia sympathized and helped the Russian troops. The protracted war ended with the defeat of Iran.

In October 1813, in the town of Gulistan, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Iran, according to which the latter recognized the accession of Georgia to Russia and the inclusion of Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan in the Russian Empire. Russia received the exclusive right to have a navy in the Caspian Sea. Russian merchants could trade freely in Iran, and Iranian merchants in Russia.

British diplomacy continued to strive to use the revanchist sentiments of the Iranian feudal lords to expand the political and economic influence of England in Iran. In 1814, an Anglo-Iranian treaty was signed in Tehran on the basis of a preliminary treaty of 1809. It provided for "perpetual peace between England and Iran." All alliances of Iran with European states hostile to England were declared invalid. Iran undertook to assist the British in their policy in India and Afghanistan, to invite military instructors only from England and friendly countries. England undertook to achieve a revision of the Russian-Iranian border established by the Gulistan Treaty, in the event of a war with Russia, to send troops from India and pay a large monetary subsidy. The signing of the treaty with England strengthened the Shah's anti-Russian sentiments.

Russo-Iranian War 1826-1828 Turkmanchay Treaty

Soon, the Iranian authorities demanded a revision of the Gulistan Treaty and the return of the Azerbaijani khanates to Iran, and in the summer of 1826, the Shah, incited by the British, began military operations against Russia. New war led to the defeat of Iran. Armenians and Azerbaijanis rendered all kinds of assistance to the Russian troops, created volunteer detachments. After the capture of Tabriz by Russian troops, peace negotiations began, which ended on February 10, 1828 with the signing of the Turkmanchay peace treaty.

The Turkmanchay Treaty replaced Gulistan treaty 1813, which was declared invalid. New border along the river. Arak meant the liberation of Eastern Armenia from the oppression of the Iranian feudal lords. Iran pledged to pay Russia 20 million rubles. military indemnity, confirmed the exclusive right of Russia to keep the navy in the Caspian Sea. The treaty provided for the mutual exchange of envoys and gave Russia the right to open its consulates in Iranian cities. Simultaneously with the peace treaty, a special treatise on trade was signed. Customs duties on goods imported from Russia should not exceed 5% of their value. Russian merchants were exempted from paying internal duties. They were subject to the right of extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction. All trade transactions between Russian merchants and Iranian merchants, as well as court cases between Russian and Iranian subjects, were to be resolved in the presence of the Russian consul.

The Turkmanchay Treaty put an end to the Russo-Iranian wars. It secured the liberation of the population of Georgia, Northern Azerbaijan and Eastern Armenia from the yoke of Iranian feudal lords. But the treatise on trade contained articles that consolidated the unequal position of Iran, and became an instrument of the colonial policy of tsarism and Russian landowners and capitalists. The influence of tsarism in Iran increased significantly.

The policy of the government of Nicholas I put the first Russian ambassador to Iran, A. S. Griboyedov, in an extremely difficult position. He reported to St. Petersburg about the grave consequences of the indemnity imposed on Iran, and about the lack of funds in the shah's treasury. But according to the instructions of his government, he had to demand the exact implementation of the contract. British agents and the reactionary clergy took advantage of this and launched a persecution of the Russian ambassador. On February 11, 1829, a mob of fanatics destroyed the Russian embassy in Tehran and tore Griboedov to pieces.

item 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 174

Question. Remember how the geopolitical position of the Ottoman Empire in the XVIII century. determined its relations with the countries of Europe and how it influenced the traditional way of life of Turkish society.

The governments of England and France would like to bring the empire under their influence. Therefore, they resolutely opposed the plans of tsarist Russia, which sought the dismemberment of the Ottoman state and the capture of the Black Sea straits. The Viennese court also hatched its projects regarding Turkish possessions in the Balkans.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Ottoman-Turkish feudalism reached its maturity. The rate of further progress of society slowed down. In economic life, a tendency towards stagnation was clearly indicated. It manifested itself in the reduction of income from agriculture, in the desire of the peasants to limit the area of ​​plowing, the growing departure villagers to the cities. A drop in economic activity was also noted in the cities, which was facilitated by internal instability in the state, a lack of agricultural raw materials and limited demand for handicraft products, preferential conditions in which European merchants were placed compared to local artisans and merchants.

The political chaos in the empire was intensified due to the military weakness of the Porte. Defeats in wars with Russia in the second half of the 18th century, constant strife in various parts of the state, the success of the Wahhabi movement in Arabia, who advocated a return to the purity of early Islam, testified that, despite the efforts of the Sultan's government, the Ottoman army was becoming less and less combat-ready. It was chaotic and undisciplined.

item 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 178

1. Analyze the socio-economic and political situation of the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th century. and explain why it was rated critical.

2. What countries in Europe, Asia and Africa were involved in the "Eastern Question"? Why almost all international contradictions of the XIX century. were associated with the Ottoman Empire?

Local capital was of a commercial and usurious nature, artisans could not compete with European industry, the country's financial system was in disorder, the power apparatus was paralyzed by corruption. Many sultans attempted reforms aimed at strengthening the army. An uprising began in the country, aggravated by external difficulties (war with France, England, Russia).

The weakening empire could no longer withstand the forces that were destroying it. France began subjugating Algeria, which turned into a source of cheap agricultural products and a market for French goods. Between the great powers began the rivalry for influence in Egypt. France hoped to subjugate him, but Russia and England supported Turkey and did not allow France to enter Egypt.

All international contradictions were connected with the Ottoman Empire, since Turkey was the largest of the states of the Islamic world. The Sultan was considered the ruler of Muslims, most of the Muslim states recognized his supreme power. North Africa- Algeria, Tunisia, Tripoli, Egypt.

item 2 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 179

Question. Describe the politics of the Tanzimat.

Tanzimat - modernization reforms in the Ottoman Empire. Unlike previous reforms, the main place in Tanzimat was occupied not by military, but by socio-economic transformations.

The reformist policy of the Turkish sultan was defeated as the Ottoman Empire was defeated in another war with Russia and the sultan returned to a despotic form of government. The reforms were stopped. The country's situation continues to deteriorate, the Sultan declares state bankruptcy and transfers England, France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary under the control of the country's finances.

The difficult economic situation gradually turned Turkey into a semi-colony of foreign states. The great states of Europe began to select certain colonies of the empire.

item 4 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 181

Question 1. What are the goals in the early XX century. could unite wide sections of Turkish society into a single organization?

At the beginning of the 20th century, most of the enterprises, ports, ships belonged to foreigners. The despotic regime, the sultan's groveling before foreigners, restored against himself heterogeneous forces - from the clergy to the officers.

Question 2. What reforms were continued in Turkey after the Young Turk revolution? Why do historians consider the results of this revolution limited?

The results of the rule of the Young Turks were reduced to the intensification of railway construction and rearmament of the army. Its results were limited: the main slogan was the idea of ​​uniting all the Muslim peoples of Asia. In reality, the Ottoman Empire had neither the economic nor the military power to solve such a problem.

item 5 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 183

Question 1. Remember why already at the beginning of the XIX century. Persia was a semi-colony.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Persia was a very weak state, there were all signs of a low level of development. At the beginning of the 19th century, Persia had already become the arena of struggle between Russia, England and France.

Question 2. What social movements under these conditions have matured in the country for a century?

A struggle for a boycott of foreign goods began in the country, and peasant uprisings continued.

Question 3. Why did the Iranian revolution of 1905-1911. been defeated?

The bourgeois-democratic revolution in Iran coincided with the national liberation movement. It was caused by the dominance of foreigners in the financial and economic sphere of the country with the connivance of the reactionary ruling elite. Equally involved in the revolution were the national bourgeoisie, small artisans, liberal landowners and peasants. During the revolution, the Mejlis (parliament) was created, a constitution was adopted. As a result, the country is divided into spheres of influence between Russia and England.

Questions and tasks for paragraph p. 183

Question 1: Prepare small message on one of the topics: "Sultans-reformers of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century", "The division of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century", "The Ottoman Empire in the policy of the European powers of the 19th century", "The national liberation movement in the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.

The reign of Selim III was marked by the confrontation between the old and the new in the social and political life of the country. Selim III paid the main attention to military reforms. First of all, he tried to strengthen and streamline the traditional units of the Turkish army - the feudal cavalry and the Janissary army. In 1792, he issued a decree according to which the “timars” of those who did not fulfill their military duties to the state were confiscated to the state treasury. Another element of the military system of the empire was the janissary corps, which by the time of Selim III was the cause of the country's military weakness, the backbone of the feudal opposition and more than once a tool for organizing courtyard intrigues and coups.

The attempts of Selim's predecessors to reorganize the Janissary corps and strengthen its former power did not bring success. Selim III supported those dignitaries who proposed the creation of a new, European-organized army. Since it was obvious that it was impossible to immediately replace the old military organization, the reformers paid some attention to improving the situation of traditional formations. For example, in the Janissary corps, classes were laid several times a week in various types of military affairs. The new corps (Nizam-i-jadid) was formed rather slowly, but new methods of training, new weapons and discipline gave results.

In the period 1792-1796. decrees were issued on a number of other reforms. Selim III carried out measures to strengthen the combat capability and technical equipment of the artillery. The army was provided with guns, instructors were invited. In a fairly short period of time, the Sultan managed to create a fleet of considerable strength. Schools were opened. An artillery department was organized at the Naval Engineering School. A military engineering school was also opened.

The desire to improve the training of military specialists led to the transfer to Turkish language a number of European works on military affairs, mathematics and other sciences.

These books had to be printed, as a result, in 1792 the first printing house resumed its work, and in 1795 another one was opened. Of course, the reforms of Selim III were his military goal, because he wanted to restore the former power of the empire. However, the ruling circles are beginning to understand that military reforms cannot solve all the problems of the state.

Among Selim's other measures to improve the situation in the state were the following. He tried to encourage the local textile industry (production of fabrics), handed over to the state all issues of food supply for the capital. However, he could not refrain from introducing new taxes, since the transformations he carried out required more and more new public funds. And this led to the discontent of the peasant population, which was supported by the clergy and feudal lords separatists.

Selim III made attempts to strengthen the authority of the central government, for this purpose a decree was issued that determined the order of organization of the provinces. The law emphasized that provincial governors were appointed by the central government and were subordinate to the sultan and grand vizier.

The reforms failed to produce real results. Among the events that complicated the implementation and implementation of reforms, as well as aggravated the situation of the empire itself, was the Franco-Turkish war of 1798. After this war, Turkey's foreign policy position remained stable for some time, but a national liberation movement began in the Balkan provinces of the empire. Problems in the country caused a new upsurge of reformism in the government.

Question 2. Compare the position of Turkey and Iran at the beginning of the 20th century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire, which was large in the past, finally lost its former influence on the course of world history, turning into a semi-colony of the West. European states declared the Ottoman Empire "the sick man of Europe" and arrogated to themselves the right to decide its fate. The actual division of the Ottoman territories took place. Bosnia and Herzegovina were under Austro-Hungarian occupation, Tunisia was ruled by the French, Egypt was captured by England. Formally, these territories remained part of the Ottoman Empire, but in fact they came under the complete control of foreign states. Using all possible means, foreign capital has taken key positions in all areas of the Turkish economy. This hindered the development of national industry, where the manufactory mode of production reigned.

By the beginning of the 20th century, Iran remained a backward country, a semi-colony of England and Russia. The supreme power in the country belonged to the Shah, who came from the Qajar dynasty (ruled since the end of the 18th century). In the Iranian village, where more than half of the population lived, dominated feudal relations and landowner arbitrariness. Through foreign competition, a large national industry did not develop. Craftsmen were in a difficult position, whose products could not withstand the competition of cheap foreign goods of factory production.

The deep economic and political crisis experienced by Iran, the dominance of foreigners, the rotten state system, the unbearable living conditions of the common people - all this contributed to the rise popular movement at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Question. What policy did the French authorities pursue towards the local population during the colonization of Algeria?

The French authorities pursued a policy of colonial expansion.