Why did the secular authorities support the reformation? What beliefs of the Reformation era do you know? What did they have in common? Literature about the Age of the Reformation

Option 1.

The Byzantine Empire was formed by:
A) the entire territory of the Roman Empire;
B) territories of the Eastern Roman Empire;
C) the territory of the Western Roman Empire;

Peasant
A) had neither land, nor his own farm, nor tools;
B) had his own land, his own farm, tools;
B) was completely dependent on the feudal lord, who could buy, sell, severely punish and kill him;
D) was dependent on the feudal lord, but the feudal lord’s power over him was incomplete; The feudal lord could sell him along with the land, severely punish him, but did not have the right to kill him.

Cities in Western Europe arose as a result
A) revival of cultural traditions of the ancient world;
B) the struggle between feudal lords and dependent peasants;
C) separation of crafts from agriculture;
D) separation of agriculture from cattle breeding;
D) the activities of kings and feudal lords who sought to strengthen personal power.

Medieval workshops
A) contributed to the development of the craft;
B) guaranteed the transition of apprentices to masters;
C) led to increased inequality among artisans;
D) ensure, as far as possible, the same conditions for the production and sale of products for all craftsmen;
D) led to the weakening of city government;
E) by the end of the Middle Ages, the development of technology began to slow down.

Humanism is:
A) new science about man;
B) new religious teaching;
B) type of art;
D) the direction of cultural development, the focus of which is man.

The beginning of the reformation in Germany was:
A) congress of princes, representatives of knights and cities in Worms;
B) the speech of Thomas Münzer in 1517 with a call to destroy the feudal order;
C) Martin Luther's speech against the trade in indulgences.

The Frankish Empire broke up into separate states:
A) in 1000
B) in 962
B) in 843

8. Pope Gregory VII is famous for the fact that:
A) organized the first crusade;
B) proclaimed the right of popes to depose emperors;
C) tried in every possible way to reconcile the Roman and Orthodox churches;
D) sought to subjugate all the sovereigns of Europe to his power;
D) broke the resistance of the German king Henry IV.

The Crusades ended:
A) the loss of all the possessions of the crusaders in Muslim countries;
B) the creation of new crusader states in the East;
C) the capture of all Arab states and the conversion of a significant part of the Arab population to Christianity;
D) the complete defeat of the crusaders and the conversion of many participants in the crusades to the Muslim faith.

In the XIII – XIV centuries. Czech Republic:
A) was an independent state;
B) was part of the Holy Roman Empire;
B) was part of the Ottoman Empire;

Characteristic features of developed feudalism:
A) crafts are separated from agriculture;
B) exchange between city and countryside is increasing;
C) peasants are freed from feudal dependence;
D) feudal fragmentation is intensifying;
D) royal power is strengthened and feudal fragmentation is eliminated;
E) the class struggle weakens;
G) the class struggle is intensifying;
H) the influence of the church on government affairs is decreasing;
I) the decomposition of the feudal system and the emergence of capitalist relations.

2. Answer the questions:
What is the Reformation? Describe the main beliefs of the Reformation era.
What were the characteristic features of absolutism? What prerequisites for strengthening central power have developed in Western European countries?
List the Great Geographical Discoveries.

Test on the topic: “Europe and Asia in the V-XVII centuries.”
Option 2.
1. Choose the correct answer(s):
The Early Middle Ages is the period from:
A) III - X centuries.
B) IV – XI centuries.
B) V-XII centuries.
D) V – XI centuries.
D) VI – X centuries.

The workshop is:
A) the union of students and apprentices of one city;
B) association of students and apprentices of the same specialty;
C) a union of artisans living in the same city;
D) a union of artisans of the same specialty living in the same country;
D) a union of master craftsmen of the same specialty living in the same city.

The division of the Christian Church into Orthodox and Catholic occurred:
A) 986
B) 1044
B) 1147
D) 1054 g.
D) 1225

Labor in factories was more productive than labor in a craftsman's workshop because:
A) workers in the factory worked under pain of punishment;
B) machines were used in the manufactory;
C) factory workers earned more than artisans;
D) in the manufactory, division of labor was used between workers.

Martin Luther is
A) small knight;
B) a major scientist of the Middle Ages;
B) wandering monk;
D) famous doctor and traveler;
D) learned monk, university professor, founder of the Reformation in Germany.

Revival is;
A) restoration by the Catholic Church of lost positions;
B) the period and process of the emergence of a completely new culture;
C) the period and process of restoration of the cultural traditions of antiquity;
D) strengthening the power of the bourgeoisie;
D) a period of temporary strengthening of the feudal system.

The reasons for the collapse of the early feudal states were:
A) depending on the feudal lords from the king;
B) the independence of the feudal lords from the king;
B) in wars between feudal lords.

Check the composition of the feudal ladder and write it down correctly:
A) knights;
B) peasants;
B) king;
D) barons;
D) counts and dukes.

Jacquerie is:
A) religious movement;
B) a peasant uprising caused by increased payments and the distress of the people;
C) popular movement for the liberation of France from the British;
D) a war between two groups of feudal lords in France.

Jan Hus is:
A) a large Czech feudal lord;
B) an impoverished Czech knight;
B) village priest;
D) Catholic monk;
D) professor at the University of Prague.

2. Answer the questions:
What types of manufactures do you know? What were their advantages over the guild associations of the Middle Ages?
What was the significance of the Counter-Reformation? How have the policies of the Roman Catholic Church changed?
List the main bodies of class representation in Western European countries.

Attached files

Under the name of the Reformation, a large opposition movement against the medieval system of life is known, which swept Western Europe at the beginning of the New Age and was expressed in the desire for radical changes mainly in the religious sphere, which resulted in the emergence of a new doctrine - Protestantism – in both of its forms: Lutheran And Reformed . Since medieval Catholicism was not only a creed, but also an entire system that dominated all manifestations of the historical life of Western European peoples, the era of the Reformation was accompanied by movements in favor of reforming other aspects of public life: political, social, economic, mental. Therefore, the reformation movement, which embraced the entire 16th and first half of the 17th centuries, was a very complex phenomenon and was determined both by reasons common to all countries and by the special historical conditions of each people individually. All these reasons were combined in each country in a wide variety of ways.

John Calvin, founder of the Calvinist Reformation

The unrest that arose during the Reformation culminated on the continent in a religious and political struggle known as the Thirty Years' War, which ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The religious reform legalized by this world was no longer distinguished by its original character. When confronted with reality, the followers of the new teaching fell more and more into contradictions, openly breaking with the original reformation slogans of freedom of conscience and secular culture. Dissatisfaction with the results of the religious reform, which degenerated into its opposite, gave rise to a special movement in the Reformation - numerous sectarianism (Anabaptists, independents, levelers etc.), striving to resolve primarily social issues on religious grounds.

German Anabaptist leader Thomas Münzer

The era of the Reformation gave all aspects of European life a new direction, different from the medieval one, and laid the foundations of the modern system of Western civilization. A correct assessment of the results of the Reformation era is possible only taking into account not only its initial verbal“freedom-loving” slogans, but also the shortcomings approved by it on practice new Protestant social-church system. The Reformation destroyed the religious unity of Western Europe, created several new influential churches and changed - not always for the better for the people - the political and social system of the countries affected by it. During the Reformation, secularization of church property often led to their theft by powerful aristocrats, who enslaved the peasantry more than ever before, and in England they often drove them off their lands en masse by fencing . The destroyed authority of the pope was replaced by the obsessive spiritual intolerance of Calvinist and Lutheran theorists. In the 16th-17th centuries and even in subsequent centuries, its narrow-mindedness far surpassed the so-called “medieval fanaticism.” In most Catholic states of this time there was permanent or temporary (often very broad) tolerance for supporters of the Reformation, but there was no tolerance for Catholics in almost any Protestant country. The violent destruction of objects of Catholic “idolatry” by the reformers led to the destruction of many major works of religious art and the most valuable monastic libraries. The era of the Reformation was accompanied by a major revolution in the economy. The old Christian religious principle of “production for man” was replaced by another, essentially atheistic one – “man for production”. Personality has lost its former self-sufficient value. The leaders of the Reformation era (especially Calvinists) saw in it just a cog in a grandiose mechanism that worked for enrichment with such energy and non-stop that material benefits did not compensate for the mental and spiritual losses that resulted.

Literature about the Age of the Reformation

Hagen. Literary and religious conditions of Germany during the era of the Reformation

Ranke. History of Germany during the Reformation

Egelhaf. History of Germany during the Reformation

Heusser. History of the Reformation

V. Mikhailovsky. On the harbingers and predecessors of the Reformation in the XIII and XIV centuries

Fisher. Reformation

Sokolov. Reformation in England

Maurenbrecher. England during the Reformation

Luchitsky. Feudal aristocracy and Calvinists in France

Erbcam. History of Protestant sects during the Reformation

Knowledge Hypermarket >>History >>History 10th grade >>History: Western Europe: a new stage of development

Western Europe: a new stage of development

In the 15th, and especially in the 16th century, the appearance of most European countries underwent significant changes. They were caused by the development of manufacturing production, changes in social and political life. There was a spiritual revolution associated with the Renaissance and Reformation. These changes paved the way for bourgeois revolutions and the industrial revolution. It is no coincidence that the later Middle Ages, when qualitatively new realities began to affect the lives of European peoples, are often characterized as the early modern era.

Transition to manufacturing production

The development of profitable colonial trade (for example, spices in Indian markets cost about 100 times less than in Europe) contributed to the rapid growth of trading capital. Large joint-stock companies, such as the East India Company, conducted operations in the markets of dozens of countries, had not only a merchant fleet, but also equipped military expeditions. Trade required the creation of a system of bank credit, transactions with shares of trading companies, bills of exchange, non-cash payments, money transfer and exchange services. All this contributed to the development of banking and the emergence of the first exchanges. Antwerp, Amsterdam, Genoa. Lyon and London became the largest centers of financial activity in the 16th century. Leading banking and trading houses became the main creditors of the monarchs, providing them with loans at high interest rates, acquiring the right to collect taxes, and taking land and real estate as collateral.

In an effort to expand the scale of their operations, trading companies invested in the development of production. Its guild organization, although it persisted for about two centuries, had largely outlived its usefulness. Strict regulation of the work of masters and apprentices, the quantity of products produced, and craft techniques hindered the increase in labor productivity and the introduction of new technology.

Despite the fact that in these conditions technical progress developed very slowly, it gradually led to the emergence new technologies and types of products.

In the 15th century, instead of the traditional furnace, a blast furnace began to be used, which used coal rather than charcoal. This increased the smelting of metal, improved its quality, and new alloys were created. The development of metallurgy made it possible to improve artillery and small arms and create complex metal products. Water and windmills were improved. In mining, pumps began to be used to pump out water and trolleys to lift ore to the surface. the depth of the mines and adits was now measured in hundreds of meters.

After the invention of printing in 1445 by the German artisan J. Gutenberg (1399-1468), printing became widespread. By 1500, large printing houses already existed in 12 European countries; about 40 thousand titles of books were published. With the invention of mechanical (spring) watches, the watch industry began to develop.

New, more productive technologies have appeared in traditional European textile and glass production. The new, manufacturing, production partially absorbed the old, workshop production, and partially replaced it.

Initially, the so-called scattered manufactories arose. Top trading houses, trying to bypass workshop restrictions and get more products at lower prices, began to distribute orders to urban and rural artisans, taking upon themselves all the worries about purchasing raw materials, semi-finished products, and selling products. This type of manufacture prevailed in the textile industry.

Mixed manufactories have become widespread in the manufacture of more complex products, such as watches. Some of their parts were made by artisans with a narrow specialization or guild masters. and the assembly was carried out in the entrepreneur’s workshop.

Finally, centralized manufactories arose, in which all labor operations were carried out in one room using machines and tools belonging to the entrepreneur and the labor of hired workers. In centralized manufactories, due to the clear organization of labor and the division of the labor process into a number of relatively simple operations, labor productivity was achieved an order of magnitude higher than in workshops and individual artisans. Centralized weapons manufactories were usually created under the auspices of monarchs, at the expense of the state.

The emergence of manufactories in many European countries, gradually replacing workshop production, had a great influence on the development of European society.

First of all, an increase in production volumes, an increase in the range of products became a source of accelerated development of commodity-money relations. Landowners sought to replace duties peasants-tenants with cash rent. In conditions when manufactories showed increasing demand for raw materials, a significant part of the land began to be allocated for industrial crops and sheep breeding.

In England, the practice of so-called enclosure became widespread in the 16th century. Landlords drove tenants off their lands. By decision of parliament, communal lands were allocated for pastures. Land plots of small owners were bought up by entrepreneurs and were also used for livestock raising or commercial production of agricultural products. Over the course of several decades, the small peasantry, leading subsistence or semi-subsistence farming, disappeared in England. The phrase “the sheep ate the people” became widespread.

Bo-second, changes were taking place in the social structure of society. The importance of entrepreneurs - bankers, merchants, and owners of factories - increased. At the same time, the number of poor people increased - artisans ruined by competition with manufacturing, peasant tenants whose lands were taken away for

pastures, The population of Europe almost doubled from 1500 to 1600 - from 80-100 million to 180 million people. Cities developed especially quickly. In the largest of them (Antwerp, Brussels, Hamburg, Lyon, Lisbon, London, Naples, Paris, Prague, Rome, Florence, Seville, etc.) the population exceeded 100 thousand people.

All this has aggravated the problem of the rural and especially urban poor, creating an explosive mass of people deprived of the minimum amenities of life. In London at the beginning of the 17th century, about 1/4 of the population were poor and unemployed.

Thirdly, the development of production and trade contributed to the formation of common domestic markets. They were based on the division of labor between individual regions and cities of large European states. At the same time, the division of labor began to develop on a pan-European scale. Copper, silver, and zinc were smelted in Germany, Tyrol, and Hungary. France, England and Sweden became centers of metallurgy. Centers for the production of glassware, porcelain, lace, satin and brocade, and weapons arose of pan-European importance.

Renaissance

Changes in the outlook and nature of the activities of Europeans had a huge impact on their worldview and attitude towards the surrounding reality.

A look at the lives of most people in the classical Middle Ages determined mainly by the routine of everyday life. The life path and outlook of each person was connected with his class origin and the profession of his parents. For the bulk of the population, submission to circumstances and the will of the lord was considered a virtue. There were few literate people, their number included church ministers whose interests were limited to the study of theological literature and theological debates.

It was no coincidence that the development of a new, secular culture began in Italy in the 14th - 15th centuries. In its large cities, the importance of trade increased, the first manufactories arose, and a layer of literate, educated people not associated with the church emerged. The coming time gave birth to new heroes - people who were enterprising, enterprising, not afraid of risks, adventures associated with trade, investment, and travel to overseas countries.

The era of the Renaissance (Renaissance) is considered to be time. When the emerging interest in a person’s personality, his individuality, his achievements was realized in turning to the spiritual culture and art of antiquity. The works of thinkers and historians of antiquity, lost in monastery libraries, began to be republished. The creations of ancient sculptors, previously forgotten and buried under the ruins of the palaces of the Roman nobility and pagan temples, began to evoke admiration. There is an idea, largely illusory, that the ancient era was a time of heroes, the flowering of culture and the triumph of human genius. Many artists, sculptors, writers, poets of the Renaissance, creating genuine masterpieces, considered themselves only imitators of the masters of antiquity.

In literary work, the Renaissance began with the Florentine poets and writers - Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), Francesca Petrarch (1304-1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1373). Their traditions were continued in England by the poet D. Chaucer (1340-1400) and playwright W. Shakespeare (1564-1616), in the Netherlands by E. Rotterdam (1466-1536), in France by F. Rabelais (1494-1553).

With all the variety of genres of their work, it also had common features. This is, first of all, a new look for the heroes of their works - people not necessarily of noble origin, but inquisitive, striving to realize their aspirations, to understand the world around us in all its diversity. Often treating the existing order with irony and skepticism. It was during the Renaissance that the term “humanism” was born, which initially meant not “philanthropy”, but “the study of man.”

Appeal to man, the beauty of the human body is characteristic of artists and sculptors of the Renaissance - S. Botticelli (1445-1510), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564), Raphael Santi (1483-1520).

Beginning of the Reformation. The first religious wars in Europe

New realities and the formation of a humanistic view of the world affected the religious foundations of the medieval worldview.

The “Avignon captivity” of the popes, who were forced to move their residence to France, which lasted 70 years, significantly weakened the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. churches on secular sovereigns. Only in 1377. Thanks to the failures of France in the Hundred Years' War, Pope Gregory XI managed to return the residence of the head of the church to Rome. However, after his death in 1377. The French bishops chose their pope, and the Italian bishops chose theirs. Church council convened in 1409. deposed both popes and elected his own candidate. The false popes did not recognize the decisions of the council. So the Roman Catholic Church found itself with three chapters at the same time: Schism, i.e., a split in the church, which lasted until 1417 and significantly weakened its influence in the largest countries of Europe - England, France and Spain.

In the Czech Republic, which was part of Roman Empire, a movement arose for the creation of a national church with a more democratic order of services, conducted in the Czech language. The founder of this movement, professor at the University of Prague Jan Tus (1371-1415), was accused of heresy at a church council in Constance and burned at the stake. However, his followers in the Czech Republic, led by the knight Jan Zizka (1З60-14ЗО), rose up in armed struggle. The Hussites demanded that the clergy observe ascetic standards of life and denounced Roman Catholic clergy for committing mortal sins. Their demands were widely supported by the peasantry and townspeople. The Hussites captured almost the entire territory of the Czech Republic and carried out secularization (confiscation) of church lands, which mostly passed into the hands of secular feudal lords.

In 1420-1431 Rome and the empire undertook five crusades against the Hussites, whom they declared heretics. However, the crusaders failed to achieve a military victory. Hussite detachments launched counterattacks on the territory of Hungary, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. At the Council of Basel in 1433, the Roman Catholic Church made concessions, recognizing the right to exist in the Czech Republic of a church with a special order of service.

The massacre of J. Hus did not stop the spread of skepticism towards the Roman Catholic Church. The most serious challenge to her was the teaching of the monk of the Augustinian order, professor at the university in Wittenbach (Germany) M. Luther (1483-1546). He opposed the sale of indulgences, i.e. remission of sins for money, which was an important source of income for the church. Luther argued: this makes repentance meaningless, which should contribute to the spiritual cleansing of a person.

The Word of God, Luther believed, is set out in the Bible, and only the Holy Scriptures, which are accessible to every person, open the way to revelation and the salvation of the soul. The decrees of councils, statements of the church fathers, rituals, prayers, veneration of icons and holy relics, according to Luther, have nothing to do with the true faith.

In 1520, Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther from the church. Imperial Reichstag. in 1521, having examined Luther's views, he condemned him. However, the number of supporters of Lutheranism increased. In 1522-1523. In Germany, an uprising of knights broke out, demanding reform of the church and the secularization of its land holdings.

In 1524-1525. The German lands were engulfed in the Peasants' War, which began under religious slogans. Among the rebels, the ideas of the Anabaptists were especially popular. They denied not only the official Catholic Church, but also the Holy Scriptures, believing that every believer can receive the revelation of the Lord by turning to him with soul and heart.

The main idea of the uprising, which swept Swabia, Württemberg, Franconia, Thuringia, Alsace and the Alpine lands of Austria, was the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth. As one of its spiritual leaders, T. Münzer (1490-1525), believed, the path to this kingdom lies through the overthrow of monarchs, the destruction of monasteries and castles, and the triumph of complete equality. The main demands were the restoration of communal land ownership, the abolition of duties, and the reform of the church.

Neither Luther nor the residents of the cities supported the demands of the rebels. The troops of the German princes defeated the poorly organized peasant armies. During the suppression of the uprising, about 150 thousand peasants died.

This victory significantly increased the influence of the princes, who increasingly took into account the opinion of the Roman Catholic Church and emperors. In 1529, many princes and free cities protested against the prohibition of the new, Lutheran, faith by the Imperial Reichstag. In the possessions of the protesting (Protestant) princes, monasteries and Catholic churches were closed, their lands passed into the hands of secular rulers.

The seizure of Church lands and the subordination of the church to secular rulers became inevitable. For these purposes, in 1555, a religious peace was concluded in the empire, and the principle “whose power, whose faith” was adopted. Even princes loyal to Catholicism supported her.

The weakening of the position and influence of the Catholic Church was observed not only in Germany, but also in the Swiss church reformer. A native of France, Jean Calvin (1509-1564), created a doctrine that gained great popularity in cities, especially among entrepreneurs. According to his views, if a person is lucky in life, in earthly affairs, in particular in trade and entrepreneurship, then this is a sign , testifying to God's favor towards him. Moreover, it is a sign that, subject to righteous behavior, he will gain the salvation of his soul. Calvinism strictly regulated the daily life of man.

Thus, in Geneva, which accepted Calvin’s views, entertainment, music, and wearing fashionable clothes were prohibited.

England also broke with the Catholic Church. The reason for this was the conflict between the pope and King Henry VIII (1509-1547). Having not received permission from Rome for divorce, in 1534 he achieved from Parliament the adoption of a law according to which a new, Anglican, church was established in England. The king was proclaimed its head. The right to carry out church reforms, eradicate heresy, and appoint clergy passed to him. Monasteries were closed, church lands were confiscated, worship began to be conducted in English, the cult of saints and the norms requiring the clergy to observe a vow of celibacy were abolished.

The Catholic Church could not resist the ideas of the Reformation. The Jesuit Order became a new instrument of her policy. Founded by Itatius Loyola (1491-1556). The order was built on the principles of strict discipline, its members took vows of non-covetousness, celibacy, obedience and unconditional obedience to the pope. The basic principle of the order was that any action is justified if it serves the true religion, i.e. Roman Catholic Church. The Jesuits penetrated the power structures and Protestant communities and sought to weaken them from within, identifying heretics. They created schools where preachers were trained who could argue with supporters of the Reformation.

Convened in 1545 The Council of Trent confirmed the basic dogmas of the Catholic Church, condemned the principle of freedom of religion, and tightened the requirements for compliance by Catholic priests with the norms of righteous life. This council marked the beginning of the Counter-Reformation - the struggle of the Catholic Church to maintain its influence. The scale of the Inquisition's activities increased. Thus, she regarded as heretical the teaching of the Polish astronomer N. Copernicus (1473-1543), who proved that the Earth is not the center of the Universe. The Inquisition sentenced his follower D. Bruno (1548-1600), who refused to renounce the ideas he expressed, to be burned. A wave of persecution of witches, sorcerers, and people accused of collaborating with evil spirits and heretical views arose.

Questions and tasks

1. Name the prerequisites for the transition to manufacturing production.
2. What types of manufactories do you know? What were their advantages over the guild associations of the Middle Ages?
H. Determine the consequences of the spread of manufacturing in Europe.
4. Name the main features of the worldview of the Renaissance man.
5. List the factors that contributed to the weakening of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in European countries.

What beliefs of the Reformation era do you know? What did they have in common, what was special? Why did the secular authorities of many countries support the Reformation?

Answers:

Lutheranism denies the possibility of mediation between man and the Lord. According to this teaching, only repentance and faith can save a person’s soul. At the same time, the clergy is assigned only the role of an advisor in the interpretation of sacred texts, but the believer still must decide for himself. Lutheranism opposed the luxury of the church, the monastic movement and reduced the number of church sacraments to a minimum. Zwinglianism went even further. It sought to purge the faith of everything that was not confirmed in the New Testament. Therefore, in particular, it denied the church sacraments as such - they are not described in any of the books of Holy Scripture. Calvinism also opposed monasticism, the luxury of the church, unnecessary sacraments and the role of the clergy as a mediator in a person’s conversation with God. However, Calvinism places more emphasis on human predestination. The theme of predestination in Christianity, dating back to St. Augustine, was fully expressed in this teaching. According to it, it was initially predetermined who was destined for heaven and who was destined for hell. A person does not know his purpose, but God gives him hints, for example, in the form of success in business. Calvinism approves of business activity, like any work, considering it a godly work. On the contrary, idleness, like the monks, is considered a sin. Monarchs often supported Protestantism in order to weaken the Pope or another monarch who fought against the Protestants. An important incentive was also the confiscation of church lands and other property, which passed to the secular authorities. Sometimes other motives also played a role. For example, Henry VIII of England was attracted to the idea of becoming the head of a new church himself. Besides everything else, he saw no other way to dissolve his marriage, which he really wanted.

The Reformation is a church-social movement of the 16th century in Europe against the Catholic Church, in which the struggle for religious ideals was intertwined with the class struggle of the peasantry and the emerging bourgeoisie with the feudal lords. Became a catalyst for the collapse of feudal society and the emergence of rudimentary forms of capitalism

Causes of the Reformation

Catholicism was a whole system that imposed a framework on the entire culture and social organization of European peoples:

—

All secular institutions of European society united in the struggle against the Catholic Church: state power, the emerging bourgeoisie, the oppressed peasantry, intellectuals, and representatives of the liberal professions. They fought not in the name of the purity of Christian doctrine, not in the name of restoring the Bible as the main authority in matters of religion, not in the name of the demands of conscience and religious thought, but because Catholicism interfered with the free development of social relations in all spheres of life

Reformation in Europe

The formal beginning of the Reformation is considered to be October 31, 1517, when the vicar of the deanery of the Augustinian Order, Martin Luther, published his 95 theses against the trade in papal indulgences*

1520s - Germany
1525 - Prussia, Livonia
1530s - England
1536 - Denmark
1536 - Norway
1540 - Iceland
1527-1544 - Sweden
1518-1520s - Switzerland: Zurich, Bern, Basel, Geneva
1520-1530s - France: Lutheranism and Anabaptism
1550s - France: Calvinism
1540-1560s - Netherlands

Figures of the Reformation

Martin Luther (1483–1546) - Germany
Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560) - Germany
Hans Tausen (1494–1561) - Denmark
Olaus Petri (1493–1552) - Sweden
Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) – Switzerland
John Calvin (1509–1564) – France, Switzerland
Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) - England
John Knox (1514?–1572) - Scotland
J. Lefebvre (1450-1536) - France
G. Brisonnet (1470-1534) - France
M. Agricola (1510-1557) - Finland
T. Munzer (1490-1525) - Germany

As a result of the Reformation, some believers adopted the ideas of its main figures Luther and Calvin, turning from Catholics to Lutherans and Calvinists

Brief biography of Martin Luther

1483 (1484?), November 10 - born in Eisleben (Saxony)
1497-1498 - study at the Lollard school in Magdeburg
1501 - 1505 - studies at the University of Erfurt
1505 - 1506 - novice in the Augustinian monastery (Erfurt)
1506 - took monastic vows
1507 - ordained to the priesthood
1508 - moves to the Wiggenberg monastery and enters the theological faculty of the University of Wiggenberg
1512, October 19 - Martin Luther receives his Doctor of Divinity degree
1515 - elected vicar of the deanery (11 monasteries) of the Augustinian Order.
1617, October 31 - Father Martin Luther posted 95 theses on indulgences on the door of the Wittenberg parish church.
1517-1520 - numerous theological articles criticizing the existing order in the church
1520, June 15 - bull of Pope Leo X, which invites Luther to renounce his heretical ideas within 60 days
1520, December 10 - in the town square of Wiggenberg, a crowd of students and monks under the leadership of Luther burned the papal bull and the writings of Luther's opponents.
1521, January 3 - Leo X's bull excommunicating Martin Luther from the Church.
1521, May - 1522, March - Martin Luther, under the name of Jurgen Jorg, hides in the Wartburg Fortress, continuing his journalistic activities
1522, March 6 - return to Wittenberg
1525, June 13 - marriage to Katharina von Bora
1525, December 29 - the first service according to the new rite, performed by Luther.
1526, June 7 - Luther's son Hans was born
1527, December 10 - Luther's daughter Elizabeth was born, died April 3, 1528.
1522-1534 - journalistic activity, translation into German of the books of the prophets and the Bible
1536, May 21-28 - a meeting of the largest theologians of the new faith took place in Wittenberg under the chairmanship of Luther
1537, February 9 - Protestant congress in Schmalkalden, for which Luther wrote the Creed.
1537-1546 - journalism, traveling around Germany
1546, February 18 - Martin Luther died of heart disease

The main idea of Lutheranism is salvation by personal faith, which is given by God, without the help of the church. The connection between God and man is personal; the church is not a mediator between God and man. All believers are recognized as equal before Christ, priests lose their position as a special class. Religious communities themselves invite pastors and elect governing bodies. The source of doctrine is the Bible, which the believer has the right to independently explain. Instead of Latin, services are conducted in the native language of the believer

Brief biography of John Calvin

1509, July 10 - born in the French city of Noyon
1513-1531 in Paris, Orleans, Bourget studied the humanities, law, theology, received a licentiate degree
1532, spring - published his first scientific work at his own expense - comments on Seneca’s treatise “On Meekness”
1532 - received his doctorate in Orleans
1532, second half - became a Protestant
1533, October - wrote a speech “On Christian Philosophy” for the rector of the university Nicolas Copa, for which he was persecuted
1533-1535 - how the author of a seditious speech hid in the south of France
1535, winter - fearing for his life, fled to Switzerland
1536, first half - lived in Basel and the Italian town of Ferrara at the court of the Duchess of Ferrara Rene, daughter of King Louis XII, published his main work “Establishments of the Christian Faith”
1536, July-1538, spring - lived in Geneva until he was expelled
1538-1540 - Bern, Zurich, Strasbourg
1540, September - marriage to the widow Idelette Shtorder
1541, September 13 - return to Geneva by decision of the City Council
1541, November 20 - presented a draft charter of the church, which was approved by the General Assembly of Citizens

The charter provided for the election of 12 elders. Judicial and supervisory power was concentrated in the hands of the elders. The entire government structure of Geneva acquired a strict religious character. Gradually, all city power was concentrated in a small council, over which Calvin had unlimited influence.
The laws adopted at the insistence of Calvin were intended to make Geneva a prototype of the “city of God.” Geneva was to become Protestant Rome. Calvin called for strict monitoring of cleanliness and order in Geneva - it was to become a model for other cities in everything.
Calvin considered the task of the church to be the religious education of all citizens. To achieve this, Calvin carried out a series of reforms aimed at establishing “worldly asceticism.” The pompous Catholic cult was abolished, and strict administrative measures were taken aimed at strengthening morality. Petty and captious supervision was established over all citizens. Attendance at church services became mandatory; entertainment, dancing, bright clothes, and loud laughter were prohibited. Gradually, not a single theater remained in Geneva, mirrors were broken as unnecessary, elegant hairstyles were obstructed. Calvin had a heavy, domineering character. He was intolerant of both Catholics and representatives of other reform movements. At his insistence, opponents of his teaching were subjected to expulsion and even death penalty. In 1546 alone, 58 death sentences and 76 decrees of expulsion from the city were passed in Geneva.

1553 - by verdict of the Geneva consistory, M. Servet was executed for heretical views. First time sentenced to death for dissent
1559 - Founding of the Geneva Academy - a higher theological institution for the training of preachers
1564, May 27 - Calvin died. He was buried without ceremony, without a gravestone. Soon his burial place was lost

The main idea of Calvinism is the doctrine of “absolute predestination,” according to which God, even before the “creation of the world,” predestined some people to “salvation” and others to “destruction,” and this sentence of God is absolutely unchangeable. However, the doctrine of “absolute predestination” was not fatalistic in nature. According to Calvinism, life is given to a person in order to reveal the abilities inherent in him by God, and success in earthly affairs represents a sign of salvation. Calvinism proclaimed new moral values - frugality and prudence combined with tireless work, moderation in everyday life, and the spirit of entrepreneurship

Counter-Reformation

Every action implies a reaction. Catholic Europe responded to the Reformation movement with the Counter-Reformation (1543 - 1648). The Catholic Church refused to provide indulgences, new monastic orders and theological seminaries were founded, a uniform liturgy (the most important Christian service), the Gregorian calendar were introduced, the Reformation was suppressed in Poland, the lands of the Habsburgs, and France. The Counter-Reformation formalized the final break between Catholicism and Protestantism

Results of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation

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*Indulgence - remission of sins for money