Can be considered the main criterion for human evolution. Human social evolution: factors and achievements. View the contents of the document "Factors of Human Evolution"

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What are the factors of biological evolution?

Answer. Biological factors, or the driving forces of evolution, are common to all living nature, including humans. These include hereditary variability and natural selection.

The role of biological factors in human evolution was revealed by Charles Darwin. These factors played a big role in human evolution, especially in the early stages of its formation.

A person experiences hereditary changes that determine, for example, hair and eye color, height, and resistance to environmental factors. In the early stages of evolution, when man was heavily dependent on nature, individuals with hereditary changes that were useful in given environmental conditions (for example, individuals distinguished by endurance, physical strength, dexterity, and intelligence) predominantly survived and left offspring.

Questions after § 29

What factor was decisive in the formation of the species Homo Sapiens?

Answer. The decisive factor in the development of a person is social. Social factors of anthropogenesis include labor, social lifestyle, developed consciousness and speech. The role of social factors in anthropogenesis was revealed by Engels in his work “The Role of Labor in the Process of Transformation of Ape into Man” (1896). These factors played a leading role in the later stages of human development.

Labor activity contributed to the consolidation of morphological and physiological changes in human ancestors, which are called anthropomorphoses.

An important anthropomorphosis in human evolution was upright walking. Over many generations, as a result of natural selection, individuals with hereditary changes favoring upright walking were preserved. Adaptations for upright walking gradually developed: an S-shaped spine, an arched foot, a wide pelvis and chest, and massive bones of the lower extremities.

Which communities of ancient people were more likely to survive the selection process?

Answer. Communities of ancient people were subject to group selection, which favored the preservation of those groups in which more socially developed individuals predominated. This was expressed in the improvement of the inhibitory mechanisms of the brain, which made it possible to reduce mutual aggressiveness, as well as in the development of properties that contributed to the enrichment of knowledge based on one’s own and others’ experience.

The most important feature of human society is the presence of a fund of social and cultural information, not biologically inherited and transmitted from generation to generation through learning (and at later stages of social development, coded in writing) and in the form of tools and other material and spiritual values ​​created by previous generations. The growth and development of this social fund gradually reduced man's dependence on nature, which could not but lead to significant changes in the very nature of human evolutionary transformations. For any human population, the fund of material culture accumulated by previous generations is the most important part of the habitat. Natural selection adapted human groups to this specific environment - selection in favor of individuals more capable of learning and working, and group selection in favor of groups in which individuals with more developed social behavior predominated.

Why do social factors play a leading role in the development of modern man?

Answer. Social factors of anthropogenesis include labor, social lifestyle, developed consciousness and speech. The role of social factors in anthropogenesis was revealed by Engels in his work “The Role of Labor in the Process of Transformation of Ape into Man” (1896). These factors played a leading role in the later stages of human development.

The most important factor in human evolution is labor. The ability to make tools is unique to humans. Animals can only use individual objects to obtain food (for example, a monkey uses a stick to get a treat).

Labor activity contributed to the consolidation of morphological and physiological changes in human ancestors.

An important change in human evolution was walking upright. Over many generations, as a result of natural selection, individuals with hereditary changes favoring upright walking were preserved. Adaptations for upright walking gradually developed: an S-shaped spine, an arched foot, a wide pelvis and chest, and massive bones of the lower extremities.

Walking upright resulted in the release of the arm. At first, the hand could only perform primitive movements. In the process of work, she improved and began to perform complex actions. Thus, the hand is not only an organ of labor, but also its product. The developed hand allowed man to make primitive tools. This gave him significant advantages in the struggle for existence.

Joint work activity contributed to the unity of team members and necessitated the exchange of sound signals. Communication contributed to the development of the second signaling system - communication using words. At first, our ancestors exchanged gestures and individual inarticulate sounds. As a result of mutations and natural selection, the oral apparatus and larynx were transformed, and speech was formed.

Work and speech influenced the development of the brain and thinking. Thus, over a long period of time, as a result of the interaction of biological and social factors, human evolution took place.

If the morphological and physiological characteristics of a person are inherited, then the ability to work, speech and thinking develop only in the process of upbringing and education. Therefore, with prolonged isolation of a child, his speech, thinking, and adaptability to life in society do not develop at all or develop very poorly.

The qualitative uniqueness of human evolution lies in the fact that its driving forces were not only biological, but also social factors, and it was the latter that were decisive in the process of human formation and continue to play a leading role in the development of modern human society.

Biological factors of human evolution

Man, like any other biological species, appeared on Earth as a result of the interconnected action of factors in the evolution of the living world. How did natural selection contribute to the consolidation of those morphological characteristics of humans that distinguish them from their closest relatives among animals?

The main reasons that forced once arboreal animals to switch to life on land were a reduction in the area of ​​tropical forests, a corresponding decrease in the food supply and, as a consequence, an increase in body size. The fact is that an increase in body size is accompanied by an increase in absolute, but a decrease in relative (i.e., per unit body weight) food needs. Large animals can afford to eat less high-calorie foods. The decline of tropical forests has increased competition between monkeys. Different species took different approaches to solving the problems they faced. Some learned to run quickly on all fours and mastered open terrain (savannah). An example is baboons. Their enormous physical power allowed the gorillas to stay in the forest without any competition. Chimpanzees turned out to be the least specialized of all the great apes. They can deftly climb trees and run quite quickly on the ground. And only hominids solved the problems they faced in a unique way: they mastered walking on two legs. Why was this method of transportation beneficial for them?

One of the consequences of an increase in body size is an increase in life expectancy, which is accompanied by a lengthening of the gestation period and a slowdown in the rate of reproduction. In apes, one baby is born every 5-6 years. His death in an accident turns out to be a very costly loss for the population. Bipedal apes managed to avoid such a critical situation. Hominids learned to take care of two, three, four cubs at the same time. But this required more time, effort and attention, which the female had to devote to her offspring. She was forced to give up many other forms of activity, including searching for food. The males did this. Freeing the forelimbs from participating in locomotion allowed males to bring more food for females and cubs. In the current situation, moving on four limbs has become unnecessary. On the contrary, upright walking gave hominids a number of advantages, the most valuable of which turned out to be the ability to make tools after 2 million years.

Social factors of human evolution

The creation and use of tools increased the adaptability of ancient man. From that moment on, any hereditary changes in his body that turned out to be useful in tool activity were fixed by natural selection. The forelimbs underwent evolutionary transformation. Judging by fossils and tools, the working position of the hand, the method of grip, the position of the fingers, and force tension gradually changed. In the technology of manufacturing tools, the number of strong blows was reduced, the number of small and precise movements of the hand and fingers increased, the factor of strength began to give way to the factor of accuracy and dexterity.

The use of tools when cutting carcasses and cooking food over fire resulted in a reduction in the load on the masticatory apparatus. On the human skull, those bony protrusions to which powerful chewing muscles are attached in monkeys gradually disappeared. The skull became more rounded, the jaws became less massive, and the facial region became straightened.

A tool of labor can be made only if a mental image and a conscious goal of the work are formed in the imagination of its creator. Human labor activity helped develop the ability to reproduce in the mind coherent ideas about objects and manipulations with them.

A prerequisite for the development of speech had to be a sufficiently developed brain, which allowed a person to associate a variety of sounds and ideas. Speech owes its origin to the imitation and modification of various natural sounds (the voices of animals, the instinctive cries of man himself). The benefits of community cohesion through speech became clear. Training and imitation made speech more and more articulate and perfect.

Thus, the distinctive features of man - thinking, speech, the ability to use tools - arose in the course and on the basis of his biological development. Thanks to these features, man learned to withstand the adverse influences of the environment to such an extent that his further development began to be determined not so much by biological factors as by the ability to create perfect tools, arrange homes, obtain food, raise livestock and grow edible plants. The formation of these skills occurs through training and is possible only in the conditions of human society, i.e. in a social environment. Therefore, weapon activity, along with the social way of life, speech and thinking, are called social factors in human evolution. Children who grew up isolated from people do not know how to speak, are not capable of mental activity, or of communicating with other people. Their behavior is more reminiscent of the behavior of the animals among which they found themselves shortly after birth. The formation of man is inextricably linked with the formation of human society.

The relationship between biological and social factors in human evolution. Biological factors played a decisive role in the early stages of homind evolution. Almost all of them continue to operate at the present time. Mutation and combination-type variability support the genetic diversity of humanity. Fluctuations in the number of people during epidemics and wars randomly change the frequencies of genes in human populations. The listed factors together supply material for natural selection, which operates at all stages of human development (culling of gametes with chromosomal rearrangements, stillbirths, infertile marriages, death from disease, etc.).

The only biological factor that has lost its significance in the evolution of modern man is isolation. In the era of advanced technical means of transportation, constant migration of people has led to the fact that there are almost no genetically isolated population groups left.

Over the past 40 thousand years, the physical appearance of people has hardly changed. But this does not mean the end of human evolution as a biological species. It should be noted that 40 thousand years is only 2% of the existence of the human race. It is extremely difficult to detect human morphological changes over such a short period of time on a geological scale.
As human society developed, a special form of communication between generations arose in the form of continuity of material and spiritual culture. By analogy with the system of inheritance of genetic information, we can talk about the system of inheritance of cultural information. Their differences are as follows. Genetic information is passed on from parents to offspring. Cultural information is available to anyone. The death of a person leads to the irreversible disappearance of a unique combination of his genes. On the contrary, the experience accumulated by a person will flow into universal human culture. Finally, the speed of dissemination of cultural information is much greater than the speed of transmission of genetic information. The consequence of these differences is that modern man as a social being develops much faster than as a biological being.

In the course of evolution, man has acquired the greatest advantage. He learned to maintain harmony between his unchanging body and his changing nature. This is the qualitative uniqueness of human evolution.

Human races. In modern humanity, there are three main races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Equatorial (Negro Australoid). Races are large groups of people distinguished by certain external characteristics, such as skin color, eyes and hair, hair shape, facial features. The formation of racial characteristics was facilitated by the fact that human settlement on Earth 100-10 thousand years ago took place in small groups that made up a small part of the original population. This led to the fact that the newly formed isolated populations differed from each other in the concentrations of certain genes. Since the population of the Earth during this the period was very small (no more than 3 million people 15 thousand years ago), newly formed populations in different parts of the world developed in isolation from each other.

In different climatic conditions, under the influence of natural selection on the basis of different gene pools, characteristic external features of human races were formed. However, this did not lead to the formation of different species, and representatives of all races are classified as one biological species - Homo sapiens. In terms of their ability to learn, work, and creative abilities, all races are the same. Currently, racial characteristics are not adaptive. An increase in population, a sharp decrease in the level of isolation of populations, and the gradual disappearance of racial, ethnic and religious prejudices lead to the erosion of interracial differences. Apparently, in the future these differences should disappear.



1) bilateral symmetry of the body
2) the digestive system with the mouth and anus
3)different types of mouthparts
4) body developing from three germ layers

2.The main significance of the mucus secreted by the skin glands of fish is
is
1) increased sensitivity of the lateral line organs
2) protect the scales from the settlement of unicellular algae on it
3) supplying scales with nutrients
4) reducing the friction of the fish’s body on the water

3.Which factor in human evolution is considered social?
1) hereditary variability
2) the struggle for existence
3) natural selection
4)development of the second signaling system

4How is the human chest cavity separated from the abdominal cavity?
1)peritoneum
2) ribs
3) diaphragm
4) pleura

In what lobe of the cerebral cortex are the centers that control
voluntary movements?
1)
frontal
2)
temporal
3)
occipital
4)
parietal

Participate in the formation of antibodies
1)
red blood cells
2)
platelets
3)
phagocytes
4)
lymphocytes

In which of the following vessels of the circulatory system is it observed?
lowest blood speed?
1)
inferior vena cava
2)
carotid artery
3)
aorta
4)
alveolar capillary

Which human organ can serve as a “model” for the manufacture of flexible
shower hoses?
1)
esophagus
2)
aorta
3)
trachea
4)
spine

In the process of plastic metabolism in the human body
1)
energy is released and ATP is synthesized
2)
glycogen is formed from glucose
3)
fats are converted into glycerol and fatty acids
4)
proteins are oxidized to water, carbon dioxide and ammonia

To what color are the retinal cones selectively sensitive?
1)
yellow
2)
orange
3)
green
4)
grey

You can get HIV infection
1)
while having lunch together
2)
during a conversation
3)
during sexual intercourse
4)
at the moment of a handshake

Determine the type of injury based on the following description: lower leg unnaturally
is inverted, increasing pain is observed, and develops at the site of injury
swelling, no movement.
1)
sprain
2)
sprained ankle
3)
soft tissue bruise of the leg
4)
open fracture with bone displacement

The appearance of the ozone screen in the Earth's biosphere was associated with
1)
the occurrence of the breathing process
2)
conversion of energy in food circuits
3)
the appearance of chlorophyll
4)
dispersal of living organisms over the entire land surface

Are the following statements about modified plant organs correct?
A. Modified roots include rhizomes, tubers and bulbs.
B. Peas have tendrils, which are modified
leaves.
1)
only A is correct
2)
only B is correct
3)
both judgments are correct
4)
both judgments are wrong

What features are characteristic of representatives of the class Cartilaginous fish?
Choose three correct answers out of six and write down the numbers under which they are
indicated.
1)
absence of gill covers
2)
axial skeleton bony or osteochondral
3)
absence of swim bladder
4)
external fertilization only
5)
live in rivers, lakes, ponds
6)
live in seas and oceans

Establish a correspondence between the characteristic and the type of cell for which it is
characteristic. To do this, for each element of the first column, select
position from the second column. Enter the numbers of the selected answers in the table.
CHARACTER TYPE OF CELL

1)
plant cell
2)
mushroom cell

A)
presence of a cell wall made of chitin
B)
presence of plastids
IN)
presence of a cell wall made of cellulose
G)

starch
D)
the presence of a reserve substance in the form
glycogen

Put the processes involved in reproduction in the correct order.
and the development of the bird, starting with nesting. Write down in your answer
the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1)
laying eggs and incubating them by females
2)
fertilization of eggs in the female's oviducts by the seminal fluid of males
3)
building nests or repairing previously used ones
4)
the appearance of offspring and the manifestation of care for them
5)
formation of egg white and other membranes

Insert into the text “Human Nervous Tissue” the missing terms from
the proposed list, using digital designations.
Write down the numbers of the selected answers in the text, and then the resulting
Enter the sequence of numbers (according to the text) in the table below.
HUMAN NERVOUS TISSUE
The main cells that form nervous tissue are called ___________ (A).
They consist of a body and cytoplasmic processes. One of the shoots
a nerve cell is usually longer than all the others, it is ___________ (B).
Also, one or several short, strong
branching processes; they are called ___________ (B). Cluster of bodies and
short processes in the central nervous system form
___________ (G).
LIST OF TERMS:
1)
satellite cells
2)
neurons
3)
nephrons
4)
dendrite
5)
axon
6)
Gray matter
7)
white matter
8)
ganglion

1. Of the invertebrate animals, only arthropods have 1) bilateral symmetry of the body 2) a digestive system with mouth and anus

3) various types of oral organs 4) a body developing from three germ layers 2. The main significance of the mucus secreted by the skin glands of fish is 1) enhancing the sensitivity of the lateral line organs 2) protecting the scales from the settlement of unicellular algae on it 3) supplying the scales with nutrients substances 4) reducing friction between the fish’s body and water 3. Which factor in human evolution is considered social? 1) hereditary variability 2) struggle for existence 3) natural selection 4) development of the second signaling system 4 How is the human chest cavity separated from the abdominal cavity? 1) peritoneum 2) ribs 3) diaphragm 4) pleura In what lobe of the cerebral cortex are the centers that control voluntary movements located? 1) frontal 2) temporal 3) occipital 4) parietal 1) erythrocytes 2) platelets 3) phagocytes 4) lymphocytes take part in the formation of antibodies

1. Which of the human characteristics relates to atavisms? a) appendix b) tail c) wisdom teeth d) third eyelid 2. first

primitive tools were made by a) Austrolopithecus b) Homo habilis c) Neanderthal d) Cro-Magnon 3.A person’s closest relative is a) orangutan b) macaque c) monkey d) limur 4. The first representative of the species Man is a) Diopithecines b) Australopithecines c) Neanderthals d) Cromvnonians

“Social human rights” - Social human rights. Objectives: to help students understand their rights enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation; - to awaken students’ interest in solving problems on social rights; cultivate tolerance; - responsible attitude towards the assigned work. - Name the main directions of social policy of our state.

“The main stages of human evolution” - Propliopithecus. Heredity, variability. Parapithecus. The struggle for existence, natural selection. Orangutan. Australopithecus. FIRST MODERN (Cro-Magnon, modern man). Generalization about the stages of anthropogenesis. Dryopithecus. Humans and apes are two different branches of the family tree.

“Human Evolution” - Heraclitus - organisms develop according to the laws of nature. Factors of anthropogenesis. Gibbon. Cro-Magnon. Gorilla. 1. Heredity 2. Variation 3. Isolation 4. Struggle for existence 5. Natural selection. Biochemical - the similarity of the chemical composition of the intracellular environment of humans and animals. Lesson objectives: Learn to find the necessary information on a topic.

“Human evolution, biology” - Tasks: a) Determine which predecessors of man switched to a terrestrial lifestyle and upright walking? Stages of human evolution." Fragment of a lesson on the topic: “The driving forces of anthropogenesis. What changes in the skull are associated with the appearance of a second signaling system in humans - speech? d) Compare the tools of anthropoids and hominids.

“The concept of evolution” - The relationship between micro- and macroevolution. Global evolutionism. The nictitating membrane is a human “rudiment”. Evolution implies universal gradual development, orderly and consistent. Selection practice. The concept of "evolution". Lamarck's views on the adaptive nature of the evolutionary process were advanced for his time.

“Man and Evolution” - Anaximander of Miletus (610-547 BC) Aristotle, Democritus, Empedocles. Ramapithecus. The thumb is opposed to the rest of the fingers of the hand. C.N.S apparatus. Chimpanzee. Pongids. Anthropology. UNSPECIALIZED INSECTIVOROUS MAMMALS. Carl Linnaeus – 18th century. Prosimians Pliopithecus Gibbons. Axial skeleton - Tubular structure Respiratory - notochord.

It is difficult to say when the question of the emergence and formation of man first arose. This problem was of interest to both the thinkers of ancient civilizations and our contemporaries. How does society develop? Is it possible to identify certain criteria and stages of this process?

Society as a single system

Each living creature on the planet is a separate organism, which is characterized by certain stages of development, such as birth, growth and death. However, no one exists in isolation. Many organisms tend to form groups within which they interact and influence each other.

Man is no exception. By uniting on the basis of common qualities, interests and activities, people form a society. Certain traditions, rules, and foundations are formed within it. Often all elements of society are interconnected and interdependent. Thus, it develops as a single whole.

Social evolution implies a leap, a transition of society to a qualitatively different level. Changes in the behavior and values ​​of an individual are transmitted to others and transferred to the entire society in the form of norms. Thus, people moved from herds to states, from gathering to technical progress, etc.

Social evolution: first theories

The essence and patterns of social evolution have always been interpreted differently. Back in the 14th century, the philosopher Ibn Khaldun was of the opinion that society develops exactly like the individual. At first it originates, followed by dynamic growth and flourishing. Then comes decline and death.

During the era of enlightenment, one of the main theories was the principle of the “stage history” of society. Scottish thinkers expressed the opinion that society rises through four stages of progress:

• gathering and hunting,
• cattle breeding and nomadism,
• farming and agriculture,
• trade.

In the 19th century, the first appeared in Europe. The term itself from Latin means “deployment.” He presents the theory of the gradual development of complex and diverse forms of life from a single-celled organism through genetic mutations in its descendants.

The idea of ​​the development of the complex from the simplest was picked up by sociologists and philosophers, considering this idea to be relevant for the development of society. For example, anthropologist Lewis Morgan identified three stages of ancient people: savagery, barbarism and civilization.

Social evolution is perceived as a continuation of the biological formation of species. It is the next stage after the appearance of Homo sapiens. Thus, Lester Ward perceived it as a natural step in the development of our world after cosmogenesis and biogenesis.

Man as a product of biological and social evolution

Evolution caused the appearance of all species and populations of living beings on the planet. But why have people advanced so much further than others? The fact is that in parallel with physiological changes, social factors of evolution also acted.

The first steps towards socialization were taken not even by a person, but by an ape, picking up tools. Gradually, the skills improved, and already two million years ago there appeared one who actively uses tools in his life.

However, the theory about such a significant role of labor is not supported by modern science. This factor acted in combination with others, such as thinking, speech, uniting into a herd, and then into communities. Within a million years, Homo erectus appears, the predecessor of Homo sapiens. He not only uses, but also makes tools, lights a fire, cooks food, and uses primitive speech.

The role of society and culture in evolution

Even a million years ago, human biological and social evolution occurred in parallel. However, already 40 thousand years ago, biological changes slowed down. Cro-Magnons are practically no different from us in appearance. Since their emergence, social factors in human evolution have played an important role.

According to one theory, there are three main stages of social progress. The first is characterized by the appearance of art in the form of rock paintings. The next stage is the domestication and breeding of animals, as well as farming and beekeeping. The third stage is the period of technical and scientific progress. It begins in the 15th century and continues to this day.

With each new period, man increases his control and influence on the environment. The fundamental principles of evolution according to Darwin, in turn, are relegated to the background. For example, natural selection, which plays an important role in “weeding out” weak individuals, is no longer so influential. Thanks to medicine and other advances, a weak person can continue to live in modern society.

Classical theories of development

Simultaneously with the works of Lamarck and Darwin on the origin of life, theories of evolutionism appeared. Inspired by the idea of ​​constant improvement and progress of life forms, European thinkers believe that there is a single formula according to which human social evolution occurs.

Auguste Comte was one of the first to put forward his hypotheses. He distinguishes the theological (primitive, initial), metaphysical and positive (scientific, highest) stages of development of the mind and worldview.

Other supporters of the classical theory were Spencer, Durkheim, Ward, Morgan and Tennis. Their views differ, but there are some general provisions that formed the basis of the theory:

• humanity appears to be a single whole, and its changes are natural and necessary;
• the social evolution of society occurs only from primitive to more developed, and its stages do not repeat;
• all cultures develop along a universal line, the stages of which are the same for everyone;
• Primitive peoples are at the next stage of evolution; primitive society can be studied from them.

Denial of classical theories

Romantic beliefs about the stable improvement of society faded away at the beginning of the 20th century. World crises and wars force scientists to take a different look at what is happening. The idea of ​​further progress is viewed with skepticism. The history of mankind no longer seems linear, but cyclical.

In the ideas of Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee, echoes of Ibn Khaldun's philosophy about the repeating stages in the life of civilizations appear. As a rule, there were four of them:

• birth,
• climb,
• maturity,
• death.

Thus, Spengler believed that about 1000 years pass from the moment of birth to the extinction of a culture. gave them 1200 years. Western civilization was considered close to a natural decline. Franz Boas, Margaret Mead, Pitirim Sorokin, etc. were also adherents of the “pessimistic” school.

Neo-evolutionism

Man as a product of social evolution again appears in the philosophy of the second half of the 20th century. Using scientific data and evidence from anthropology, history, and ethnography, Leslie White and Julian Steward develop the theory of neo-evolutionism.

The new idea is a synthesis of the classical linear, universal and multilinear model. In their concept, scientists refuse the term “progress”. It is believed that culture does not make a sharp leap in development, but only becomes somewhat more complex compared to its previous form; the process of change occurs more smoothly.

The founder of the theory assigns the main role in social evolution to culture, presenting it as the main tool for human adaptation to the environment. He puts forward an energy concept according to which the number of energy sources develops with the development of culture. Thus, he talks about three stages in the formation of society: agricultural, fuel and thermonuclear.

Post-industrial and information theories

Simultaneously with other concepts, the idea of ​​a post-industrial society emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. The main provisions of the theory are visible in the works of Bell, Toffler and Brzezinski. identifies three stages of crop formation, which correspond to a certain level of development and production (see table).

The post-industrial stage refers to the entire 19th century and the second half of the 20th century. According to Bell, its main features are improving the quality of life, reducing population growth and fertility. The role of knowledge and science is increasing. The economy is focused on the production of services and human-human interaction.

As a continuation of this theory, the concept of the information society appears, which is part of the post-industrial era. The “infosphere” is often identified as a separate economic sector, displacing even the service sector.

The information society is characterized by an increase in information specialists and the active use of radio, television and other media. Possible consequences include the development of a common information space, the emergence of electronic democracy, government and state, and the complete disappearance of poverty and unemployment.

Conclusion

Social evolution is the process of transformation and restructuring of society, during which it qualitatively changes and differs from the previous form. There is no general formula for this process. As in all such cases, thinkers and scientists differ in their opinions.

Each theory has its own characteristics and differences, but you can see that they all have three main vectors:

• the history of human cultures is cyclical, they go through several stages: from birth to death;
• humanity evolves from the simplest forms to more advanced ones, constantly improving;
• the development of society is the result of adaptation to the external environment, it changes due to changes in resources and does not necessarily surpass previous forms in everything.