Translation transformations concretization. Translational transformations in translations of Aldous Huxley's novel "Brave New World". Lexical translation techniques
Having both a plan of content and a plan of expression, they are of a formal semantic nature, transforming both the form and the meaning of the original units.
209. As part of the description of the translation process, translation transformations are considered not statically as a means of analyzing the relationship between foreign language units and their dictionary correspondences, but dynamically as translation methods that a translator can use when translating various originals in cases where there is no dictionary correspondence or cannot be used due to the conditions of the context. Depending on the nature of the foreign language units, which are considered as initial in the transformation operation, translation transformations are divided into lexical and grammatical. In addition, there are also complex lexico-grammatical transformations, where transformations either affect simultaneously the lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are inter-level, i.e. carry out the transition from lexical units to grammatical ones and vice versa.
The main types of lexical transformations used in the process of translation involving various FL and TL include the following translation techniques: translation transcription and transliteration, tracing and lexico-semantic substitutions (concretization, generalization, modulation). To the most common grammatical transformations
pits belong: syntactic assimilation (literal translation), division of a sentence, union of sentences, grammatical substitutions (forms of a word, part of speech or sentence member). Complex lexico-grammatical transformations include antonymic translation, explication (descriptive translation) and compensation.
210. Transcription And transliteration - these are ways of translating the lexical unit of the original by recreating its form with the help of letters PY. During transcription, the sound form of a foreign word is reproduced, and during transliteration, its graphic form (letter composition). The leading method in modern translation practice is transcription with the preservation of some elements of transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages differ significantly from each other, the transmission of the form of the word FL in the target language is always somewhat arbitrary and approximate: absurdist - an absurdist (author of a work of absurdity), kleptocracy - kleptocracy (thieves' elite), skateboarding - skateboarding (skating on a skateboard ). For each pair of languages, rules for the transmission of the sound composition of the word FL are developed, cases of preserving transliteration elements and traditional exceptions to the rules currently accepted are indicated. IN English-Russian translations the most common transliteration elements in transcription are mainly the transliteration of some unpronounceable consonants and reduced vowels (Dorset ["dasit] - Dorset, Campbell ["kaerabalj- Campbell), the transfer of double consonants between vowels and at the end of words after vowels (Bonners Ferry - Bonners Ferry, boss - boss) and retaining some spelling features of the word, which make it possible to bring the sound of the word closer in translation to already known samples (Hercules missile - Hercules missile, deescalation - deescalation, Columbia - Columbia). Traditional exceptions relate mainly to the sacred translations of the names of historical figures and some geographical names (Charles I - Charles I, William III - Wilhelm III, Edinborough - Edinburgh).
211. Tracing - this is a way of translating a lexical unit of the original by replacing its constituent parts - morphemes or words (in the case of stable phrases) with their lexical counterparts in the TL. The essence of tracing is to create a new word or a stable combination in
TL that copies the structure of the original lexical unit. This is exactly what the translator does when translating superpower as “superpower”, mass culture as “mass culture”, green revolution as “green revolution”. In some cases, the use of the tracing method is accompanied by a change in the order of the tracing elements: first-strike weapon - first strike weapon, land-based missile - ground-based missile, Rapid Deployment Force - rapid deployment forces. Often, in the translation process, transcription and tracing are used simultaneously: transnational - transnational, petrodollar - petrodollar, miniskirt - miniskirt.
212. Vocabulary-semantic substitutions - this is a way of translating lexical units of the original by using in the translation units of the TL, the meaning of which does not coincide with the values of the original units, but can be derived from them using a certain type of logical transformations. The main types of such substitutions are concretization, generalization and modulation (semantic development) of the meaning of the original unit.
213. Specification the replacement of a word or phrase FL with a broader subject-logical meaning by a word and a phrase FL with a narrower meaning is called. As a result of applying this transformation, the created correspondence and the original lexical unit find themselves in logical inclusion relations: the FL unit expresses the generic concept, and the TL unit expresses the specific concept included in it:
Dinny waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant. Dinny was waiting in the corridor, which smelled of carbolic acid. Was not at the ceremony. He attended the ceremony.
In some cases, the use of concretization is due to the fact that the TL does not have a word with such a broad meaning. So, the English noun thing has a very abstract meaning (an entity of any kind) and is always translated into Russian by concretization: “thing, object, case, fact, case, creature”, etc. Sometimes the generic name in the target language cannot be used due to the divergence of the connotative components of the meaning. English meal is widely used in various styles of speech, and Russian "meal" is not commonly used outside of specialized vocabulary. Poet-
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mu, as a rule, when translating meal is replaced by a more specific “breakfast, lunch, dinner”, etc .:
At seven o "clock an excellent meal was served in the dining-room.
At seven o'clock an excellent dinner was served in the dining room.
It is clear that the choice of a more specific name is entirely determined by the context and in other conditions at seven o'clock (in the evening) dinner could also be served.
Concretization is often used when there is a word in the TL with an equally broad meaning and corresponding connotation, since such words may have varying degrees of usage in FL and TL. Above (see p. 138) has already been noted the great use in English language words with a broad meaning. When translating such words, concretization is a very common way of translation. In the novel by Charles Dickens "David Copperfield" the behavior of the hero's mother, frightened by the sudden appearance of the formidable Miss Betsy, is described as follows:
My mother had left her chair in her agitation, and gone behind it in the corner.
The English verbs with the common meaning to leave and to go cannot be translated here using the corresponding Russian verbs "to leave" and "to go". The unacceptability of the translation "Mother left her chair and went behind him into the corner" is beyond doubt, the Russian language does not describe such a specific emotional situation in a similar way. The best way to ensure the equivalence of the Russian translation is to specify the indicated verbs:
The excited mother jumped up from her chair and huddled in the corner behind him.
Another sentence from the same novel should be translated in a similar way:
My old dear bedroom was changed, and I was to lie a long way off.
Arriving home after a long absence, the boy sees that everything in the house has changed and has become alien to him. The use of direct correspondences would make the translation of this English sentence obscure. Why should someone "lay away from the bedroom"? The context shows that "to lie"
means "to sleep" here, and "away" indicates only another part of the house. This is how it should be said in Russian:
My dear old bedroom was gone and I had to sleep at the other end of the house.
The concretization of the English verbs “speaking” to say and to tell is widespread, which can be translated into Russian not only as “speak” or “say”, but also as more specific “say, repeat, notice, assert, report, ask, object, order", etc.:
"So what?" I said.
So what? I asked.
Didn't tell me I should always obey my father.
He advised me to always obey my father.
The boss told me to come at once.
The owner told me to come at once.
214. Generalization is called the replacement of an IL unit, which has a narrower meaning, with a TL unit with a broader meaning, i.e. transformation inverse of instantiation. The created correspondence expresses a generic concept, including the original specific one:
Does not visit me practically every week-end. He visits me almost every week.
The use of a word with a more general meaning relieves the translator of the need to specify whether the author means Saturday or Sunday when speaking of "weekend".
Sometimes the specific name of an item does not tell the Translation Receptor anything or is irrelevant in the given context:
Jane used to drive to market with her mother in their La Salle convertible.
Jane went with her mother to the market in their car.
Didn't show us his old beat-up" Navajo blanket.
He showed us his tattered Indian blanket.
A more general designation may also be preferred for stylistic reasons. In works of fiction in Russian, it is not customary to indicate the height and weight of characters with punctual accuracy, if this is not related to sports considerations, and the combination a young man of 6 feet 2
inches in the English original will be replaced in the Russian translation by "a tall young man".
Sometimes the translator has the opportunity to choose between a more specific and a more general version of the translation and prefers the latter:
Then this girl gets killed, because she "s always speeding. - And then this girl dies because she always breaks the rules. (Compare the more "technical" option: "she always exceeds speed.")
"Who won't the game?" I said. "It's only the half." - And who won? - I ask. - It's not over yet. (Compare "more athletic": "This is only the first half.")
The method of generalization can also be used to create regular correspondences to units of the foreign language: foot - leg, wrist watch - wristwatch, etc.
215. modulation or semantic development is the replacement of a word or phrase IL with a TL unit, the meaning of which is logically derived from the meaning of the original unit. Most often, the meanings of the correlated words in the original and the translation turn out to be connected by causal relationships: I don "t blame them. - I understand them. (The reason is replaced by the effect: I don't blame them because I understand them). He" s dead now. - He died. (He died, so he is now dead.) Not always made you say everything twice. - He always asked again. (You were forced to repeat what he said because he asked you again.) When using the modulation method, the cause-and-effect relationship is often broader, but the logical connection between the two names is always preserved:
Manson slung his bag up and climbed into the battered gig behind a tall, angular black horse. (A. Cronin)
Manson set down his suitcase and climbed into a rickety buggy drawn by a large, bony black horse.
Contextual substitution is clearly needed here, especially when translating the combination behind a horse, since in Russian one cannot say: "He got into the cart behind the horse." The translation of slung his bag up through "put his suitcase", behind a horse through "drawn by a horse" and angular through "bony" is done using modulation, although it is difficult to accurately determine
pour, what is the relationship between the corresponding concepts in the original and translation.
In the following example, this connection is more explicit, but here it is more likely not “because”, but “because, insofar”:
Wouldn't cheer up somehow, begin to laugh again and draw skeletons all over his slate, before his eyes were dry.
He cheered up again, began to laugh, and drew various figures on his slate board, although his eyes were still full of tears.
216. Syntactic assimilation (literal translation) - this is a translation method in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into a similar structure of the TL. This type of "zero" transformation is used in cases where there are parallel syntactic structures in FL and TL. Syntactic assimilation can lead to a complete correspondence between the number of language units and the order of their location in the original and translation: I always remember bis words - I always remember his words. As a rule, however, the use of syntactic similitude is accompanied by some changes in structural components. When translating from English into Russian, for example, articles, linking verbs, other service elements may be omitted, as well as changes in morphological forms and some lexical units:
One of the greatest events in the period following World War I and the Russian Revolution, and closely connected with them both was the growth of the world Communist movement.
One of major events period following World War I and socialist revolution in Russia, an event closely related to war and revolution was the growth of the communist movement throughout the world.
When translating this sentence, articles are omitted, some prepositions are omitted or added, morphological forms of words are changed, some words are used that do not have a direct correspondence in English text. The translator repeated the word “event”, added the word “socialist”, replaced the phrase “with both of them” with the more euphonious “with war and revolution”. All these changes do not affect the basic structure of the sentence, which is transmitted using a similar Russian structure, while maintaining the same
new set of sentence members and the sequence of their location in the text. Syntactic similitude is widely used in English-Russian translations. A change in the structure of a sentence during translation is usually explained by the impossibility of ensuring the equivalence of a translation by means of a literal translation.
217. Division of the proposal - is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of a sentence in the original is transformed into two or more predicative structures of the TL. Articulation transformation leads either to the transformation of a simple sentence of FL into a complex sentence of TL, or to the transformation of a simple or complex sentence of FL into two or more independent sentences in TL:
The annual surveys of the Labor Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only with the employers.
The annual reviews of the Labor government were not discussed among the workers at any stage. They were discussed only with entrepreneurs.
Both engine crews leaped to safety from a collision between a parcels train and a freight train near Morris Cowley, Oxfordshire.
A mail train and a freight train collided near Maurice Cowley station in Oxfordshire. Members of both train crews escaped unscathed, jumping off the train as they went.
In the first example, the separation of the last part of the English utterance into a separate sentence in the translation makes it possible to clearly express the opposition in the original. In the second example, the division transformation made it possible to convey the meaning of the difficult-to-translate English combination leaped to safety and provide a more natural sequence of events for the Russian language (first there was a collision, and then the members of the brigade managed to escape).
A claim for a substantial wage increase and improved conditions for about 70,000 municipal busmen in the provinces was yesterday referred to a joint wages committee of the unions and employers which will meet on January 12.
About 70,000 bus drivers run by the provincial municipalities demanded significant wage increases and improved working conditions.
Yesterday, this demand was submitted to the joint commission on wages, in which both trade unions and employers are represented. The commission will consider this requirement at its meeting on January 12th.
We already know that English informal messages are characterized by the desire to fit as much information as possible into the framework of one sentence by complicating its structure. The style of the Russian press is more characterized by the desire for a relative brevity of sentences containing informational materials.
218. Combining offers - this is a translation method in which the syntactic structure in the original is transformed by combining two simple sentences into one complex one. This transformation is the reverse of the previous one:
That was a long time ago. It seemed like fifty years ago.
It was a long time ago - it seemed like fifty years had passed.
The only thing that worried me was our front door. It cracks like a bastard.
One thing bothered me - our front door creaks like crazy.
Often, the use of union transformation is associated with the redistribution of predicative syntagmas between adjacent sentences, i.e. there is a simultaneous use of union and division - one sentence is divided into two parts, and one of its parts is combined with another sentence:
But occasionally an indiscretion takes place, such as that of Mr. Woodrow Wyatt, Labor MP, when Financial Secretary to the War Office. He boasted of the prowess of British spies in obtaining information regarding the armed forces of the USSR.
However, at times, indiscretion is allowed. Thus, for example, the Labor MP, Woodrow Wyatt, when he was the financial secretary of the War Department, boasted of the dexterity shown by British spies in obtaining information about the armed forces of the USSR.
219. Grammar substitutions - This is a translation method in which a grammatical unit in the original is converted into a TL unit with a different grammatical meaning. A grammatical unit of a foreign language of any level can be replaced: word form, part of speech, sentence member, sentence definition
divided type. It is clear that when translating, the forms of the FL are always replaced by the forms of the TL. Grammar substitution like special way translation implies not just the use of TL forms in translation, but the rejection of the use of TL forms similar to the original ones, the replacement of such forms with others that differ from them in expressed content (grammatical meaning). So, in English and Russian there are singular and plural forms, and, as a rule, the correlated nouns in the original and in the translation are used in the same number, except when the form singular in English, the plural form in Russian corresponds (money - money, ink - ink, etc.) or vice versa, the English plural corresponds to the Russian singular (struggles - struggle, outskirts - outskirts, etc.). But under certain conditions, the replacement of the form of a number in the translation process can be used as a means of creating an occasional correspondence:
We are searching for talent everywhere.
We are looking for talent everywhere.
The invaders resorted to violence and atrocity to crush the resistance of the native population.
The invaders resorted to violence and atrocities to crush the resistance of the indigenous population.
They left the room with their heads held high.
They left the room with their heads held high.
220. A very common type of grammatical substitution in the translation process is the substitution of parts of speech. For English-Russian translations, the most typical are the replacements of a noun by a verb and an adjective by a noun. In English, the names of figures (usually with the suffix -eg) are widely used not only to designate persons of a certain profession (cf. Russian names “writer, artist, singer, dancer”, etc.), but also to characterize the actions of “non-professionals”. The meanings of such nouns are regularly translated using Russian verbs:
Not is a poor swimmer. - He doesn't swim well. She is no good as a letter writer. She can't write letters.
I am a very rapid packer. - I fit very quickly.
As can be seen from the examples, replacing a noun with a verb
often accompanied by the replacement of the adjective with this noun into the Russian dialect. The verb is often replaced by verbal nouns of a different type:
It is our hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday. We hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday.
English adjectives replaced by Russian nouns are most often formed from geographical names:
Australian prosperity was followed by a slump. Australia's economic prosperity was followed by a crisis.
Wed also the British Government - the government of Great Britain, the American decision - the decision of the United States, the Congolese Embassy - the Embassy of the Congo, etc. Often, a similar replacement is also used for English adjectives in a comparative degree with the meaning of increasing or decreasing volume, size or degree:
The stoppage which is in support of higher pay and shorter working hours, began on Monday.
The strike in support of demands for higher wages and shorter working hours began on Monday.
221. The replacement of members of a sentence leads to a restructuring of its syntactic structure. This kind of restructuring also occurs in a number of cases when a part of speech is replaced. For example, in the examples above, the replacement of the noun by the verb was accompanied by the replacement of the definition by the circumstance. A more significant restructuring of the syntactic structure is associated with the replacement of the main members of the sentence, especially the subject. In English-Russian translations, the use of such substitutions is largely due to the fact that in English, more often than in Russian, the subject performs functions other than designations of the subject of the action, for example, the object of the action (the subject is replaced by an object):
Visitors are requested to leave their coats in the cloak-room. Visitors are asked to leave outerwear in the cloakroom.
designations of time (the subject is replaced by the adverb of time):
The last week saw an intensification of diplomatic activity. Last week there was an intensification of diplomatic activity.
designations of space (the subject is replaced by the circumstance of the place):
The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration.
A mass demonstration took place today in the small town of Clay Cross.
designations of the cause (the subject is replaced by the circumstance of the cause):
The crash killed 20 people.
As a result of the disaster, 20 people died.
222. Changing the type of a sentence leads to a syntactic rearrangement similar to transformations when using the articulation or union transformation. In the process of translation, a complex sentence can be replaced by a simple one (It was so dark that I could not see her. - I could not see her in such darkness.); the main clause can be replaced by a subordinate clause and vice versa (While I was eating my eggs, these two nuns with suitcases came in. - I ate fried eggs when these two nuns came in with suitcases.); a complex sentence can be replaced by a compound one and vice versa (I didn't sleep too long, because I think it was only around ten o'clock when I woke up. I felt pretty hungry as soon as I had a cigarette. - I didn't sleep long, it was about ten o'clock when I woke up I smoked a cigarette and immediately felt how hungry I was.); a complex sentence with an allied connection can be replaced by a sentence with a non-union way of communication and vice versa (It was as hot as hell and the windows were all steamy. - The heat was hellish, all the windows were fogged up. Had the decision been taken in time, this would never have happened - If the decision had been made in a timely manner, this would never have happened.).
223. Antonymic translation - this is a lexico-grammatical transformation, in which the replacement of the affirmative form in the original with the negative form in translation or, conversely, the negative with the affirmative, is accompanied by the replacement of the lexical unit of the FL with the unit of the TL with the opposite meaning:
Nothing changed in my home town.
Everything remained the same in my hometown.
In English-Russian translations, this transformation is used especially often when in the original the negative form is used with a word that has a negative prefix:
She is not worthy of your attention.
She well deserves your attention.
This includes the use of the negative form with negative conjunctions until and unless:
The United States did not enter the war until April 1917.
The United States only entered the war in April 1917.
Additional expenditures shall not be made unless authorized.
Additional expenses must be made only with special permission.
Within the framework of antonymic translation, the unit of FL can be replaced not only by the directly opposite unit of TL, but also by other words and combinations expressing the opposite idea:
The railroad unions excluded negroes from their membership. The railroad unions did not accept blacks into their ranks.
It should be borne in mind that negation can also be expressed by other means, for example, using the union without:
Never came home without bringing something for the kids. When he came home, he always brought something for the children.
The use of antonymic translation is often combined with the use of other transformations (lexical or grammatical):
Their house had no screen doors.
Their doors were solid. (Replacing the negative form with the affirmative one is accompanied by a modulation of the meaning of the screen doors combination.)
The people are not slow in learning the truth.
People quickly learn the truth. (Antonymous translation is accompanied by the replacement of a part of speech - an adjective with an adverb.)
224. Explication or descriptive translation - this is a lexico-grammatical transformation, in which the lexical unit of the foreign language is replaced by the phrase, explicating its meaning, i.e. giving a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in TL. Using the explication, you can convey the meaning of any non-equivalent word in the original: conservationist - a supporter of protection environment, whistle-stop speech - speeches of the candidate during the election campaign trip. The disadvantage of descriptive translation is its cumbersomeness and verbosity. Therefore, this method of translation is most successfully used in cases where a relatively brief explanation can be dispensed with:
Car owners from the midway towns ran a shuttle service for parents visiting the children injured in the accident.
Car owners from the cities between these two points were constantly bringing and dropping parents who were visiting their children who were injured during the crash.
225. Compensation - this is a method of translation in which the elements of meaning lost during the translation of the FL unit in the original are transmitted in the translation text by some other means, and not necessarily in the same place in the text as in the original. Thus, the lost meaning is replenished (“compensated”), and, in general, the content of the original is reproduced with greater completeness. At the same time, grammatical means of the original are often replaced by lexical ones and vice versa. The heroine of W. Thackeray's novel "Vanity Fair" describes the ignorance of her master, Sir Pitt Crowley as follows:
"Serve him right," said Sir Pitt; "him and his family has been cheating me on that farm these hundred and fifty years" ... Sir Pitt might have said, "he and Ms family to be sure; but rich baronets do not need to be careful about grammar as poor governesses must be.
The incorrect use of the form of the pronoun of the third person in the original plays an important communicative role and must be somehow reflected in the translation. But an attempt to reproduce such an irregularity in the Russian language is clearly impossible. At the same time, the lost element of meaning can be successfully compensated if the non-literary speech of Sir
Pitta will be reproduced using other (lexical) means of the Russian language:
“He and his family have been cheating me on this farm for a hundred and fifty years!”... Sir Pitt could, of course, have expressed himself more delicately, but rich baronets do not have to be especially shy in expressions, not like us poor governesses.
Especially often, compensation has to be resorted to to compensate for the lost stylistic and figurative aspects of the original content:
All kinds of "Russian experts", specialists in slander of the Soviet Union before World War II were taken out of cold storage by their diplomatic masters.
Again, all kinds of mothballed "experts in Russia" were taken out of the diplomatic chests, excelling in slandering Soviet Union even before World War II.
The loss of the English image of cold storage is compensated in translation by the metaphorical “diplomatic chest” and the ironic “mothballed experts”. Some features of English vernacular cannot be conveyed into Russian by any other means than compensation, for example, the addition or omission of vowels or consonants (a-singing, a-going, hit instead of it, "appen, etc.), lack of agreement between the subject and predicate (I was, you was, etc.) or some other violation of grammatical rules.Sometimes such compensation is achieved in a relatively simple way.In B. Shaw's play "Pygmalion", Eliza says: Гт nothing to you - not so much as them slippers "Higgins corrects her: those slippers. The difference between them and those is difficult to reproduce in translation. But this "loss" can be easily compensated by playing with the wrong form of the genitive case "shoes". In translation, Eliza will say: "I am nothing to you, worse than these shoes ", and Higgins will correct it: "shoe". In other cases, to solve the problem, you will have to use PY units that do not have matches in the original:
You could tell he was very ashamed of his parents and all, because they said "he don"t" and "she don"t" and stuff like that.
It was obvious that he was embarrassed by his parents, because they said “want” and “want” and stuff like that.
In all cases, some means is sought in the target language to convey the lost element of the original content.
Transformations that can be used to make the transition from
translation units of the original to units of translation are called translation (interlingual) transformations. Since translation transformations are carried out with language units that have a content plan and an expression plan, they are formally
semantic character, transforming both the form and the meaning of the original units.
Translation transformations are considered in translation as translation techniques that a translator can use when translating various texts, in cases where there is no dictionary correspondence, or cannot be used in a given context.
Depending on the nature of the language units that are considered as initial in the transformation operation, translation transformations can be divided into lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical (in which transformations simultaneously affect
lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are interlevel, i.e. carry out the transition from lexical units to grammatical ones and vice versa).
The most frequently used lexical transformations in the translation process include: translation transcription and transliteration; tracing and lexico-semantic substitutions: concretization, generalization, modulation, etc. Grammatical transformations (morphological, syntactic) include: syntactic assimilation (literal translation); division of the proposal; consolidation of the offer; grammatical substitutions (word forms, parts of speech, sentence members are subject to replacement), etc.
Lexico-grammatical transformations are: antonymic translation; conversion transformation; adequate replacement; metaphorization / demetaphorization; explication - descriptive translation / implication; compensation; ideomatization / deideomatization, etc.
Transcription and transliteration- these are techniques for translating lexical units of the original by recreating its form using letters
translation language. When transcribed, the audio form is reproduced
foreign word, and in transliteration, its grammatical form (letter composition). For example: Klaus - Klaus; Barbara - Barbara; Lubek-
The leading technique in modern translation practice is transcription with the preservation of some elements of transliteration. Since the phonetic and grammatical systems of languages differ significantly from each other, the transfer of the word form of the source language in the language
translation is always conditional and approximate. For each pair of languages, rules are developed for transmitting the sound composition of a word in the source language,
cases of preservation of elements of transliteration and traditional
exceptions to the current rules.
Tracing is a method of translating lexical units of the original
by replacing its constituent parts - morphemes or words (in the case of stable
phrases) - their lexical correspondences in the target language. The essence of tracing is to create a new word or stable combination in the target language, copying the structure of the original
In some cases, the use of the tracing technique is accompanied by a change in the order of the tracing elements. Often, transcription and tracing are used simultaneously in the translation process. For example: transnational (English) - transnational; petrodollar - petrodollar.
Lexico-semantic substitutions is a technique for translating lexical units of the source language by using units of the target language in the translation, the meaning of which does not coincide with the value of the source units, but
can be inferred from them by some type of logical transformation. The main types of such substitutions are concretization, generalization and modulation - the semantic development of the meaning of the original unit.
Specification- lexico-semantic transformation, in which a word or phrase of the source language with a broader subject-logical meaning is replaced by a word or phrase of the target language with a narrower meaning. As a result of applying this transformation, the created correspondence and the original lexical unit find themselves in logical inclusion relations - the source language unit expresses a generic concept, and the target language unit expresses its constituent
species concept. For example: the staff of the plant - workers and employees. At
concretization, an additional differential seme is introduced into the initial structure: “student - student”.
Generalization- lexico-semantic transformation, in which a unit of the source language, which has a narrower meaning, is replaced by a unit of the target language with a broader meaning. This transformation is the inverse of instantiation. Reception of generalization
have to be used if there are no specific concepts in the target language,
similar to those in the source language. This technique helps the translator
get out of a difficult situation when he does not know the designation of the specific concept in the target language. For example: bananas, oranges, pineapples are fruits. During generalization, the semantic structure changes due to the loss of the differential seme: "table - furniture, chair - furniture".
Modulation(semantic, logical development) is a lexico-semantic transformation, in which a word or phrase of the source language is replaced by a unit of the target language, the meaning of which is logically derived from the value of the original unit. Most often, the meanings of related words in the original and translation are connected by cause-and-effect relationships.
With modulation - logical development - the semantic structure undergoes the greatest changes and can receive all or almost all new components: "new article - the last success" (replacement of all main semantic components), "responsible - manager" (replacement of most components). Logical development is the most complex technique that requires a certain skill from the translator. Its essence is in replacing a concept with another, not only if these concepts are connected with each other as a cause and effect, but also as a part and a whole, an instrument and an agent, etc. For example:
“new record of the singer…” - “the last success of the singer…”;
"former responsible ..." - "former leader ...";
"home education ..." - "family education ...", etc.
Many similar correspondences are recorded in special dictionaries. More often, translators have to find such transitions between interrelated concepts anew in the process of translation, which is one of the aspects of their work.
Syntactic assimilation(literal translation) - grammar
transformation in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into a similar structure of the target language. This "null" transformation is used in cases where there are parallel syntactic structures in the source language and the target language.
Syntactic assimilation can lead to full correspondence between the number of language units and the order of their arrangement in the original and translation.
Division of the proposal- grammatical transformation, in which the syntactic structure of the sentence in the original is transformed into two or more predicative structures of the target language. Articulation transformation results in the transformation of a simple sentence of the source language into a complex sentence of the target language, or to the transformation of a simple or complex sentence of the source language into two or more independent sentences in the target language.
Grammar substitution- grammatical transformation, in which a grammatical unit in the original is transformed into a target language unit with a different grammatical meaning. A grammatical unit of the source language of any level can be replaced: a word form, a part of speech, a sentence member, a sentence of a certain type. In the process of translation, the forms of the source language are always replaced by forms of the target language. But grammatical substitution, as a transformation, implies not just the use of forms of the target language in translation, but the rejection of the use of forms of the target language similar to the original ones, since they do not allow for an adequate translation. Replacing the forms of the source language with others that differ from them in terms of expressed content (grammatical meaning) - this is the essence of this transformation. Very
a common type of grammatical transformation in pairs of languages
German/English and Russian/Belarusian is a part of speech replacement.
Antonymic translation- this is a lexical-grammatical transformation, in which the affirmative form is replaced
in the original to negative in translation or, conversely, negative to affirmative. This is accompanied by the replacement of the lexical unit of the source language by the unit of the target language with the opposite meaning.
Fiterman A. M. and Levitskaya T. R. There are three types of translation transformations:
1. Grammatical transformations. This includes the following techniques: permutations, omissions and additions, restructuring and replacement of sentences.
2. Stylistic transformations. This category includes such techniques as synonymous substitutions and descriptive translation, compensation and other types of substitutions.
3. Lexical transformations. Here we need to talk about the replacement and addition, concretization and generalization of sentences, as well as omission.
The next scientist Schweitzer A. D., proposes to divide transformations into four groups.
· Transformations at the component level of semantic valency imply the use of various kinds of substitutions. For example, the replacement of morphological means with lexical, other morphological, syntactic or phraseological ones, and others.
· Transformations at the pragmatic level include the following methods: translation compensation, replacement of certain stylistic means by others, replacement of allusions (realities) with similar ones, as well as interpretive, clarifying translation and translation compensation.
Transformations carried out at the referential level are concretization (or hyponymic transformation), generalization (hyperonymic transformation), replacement of realities (interhyponymic transformation), as well as translation using remetaphorization (synecdocheal transformation), metonymic transformation, remetaphorization (replacement of one metaphor by another ), demetaphorization (replacing a metaphor with its antipode - a non-metaphor). This also includes one or another combination of the named transformations and complex transformations (for example, conversion).
· Transformations at the stylistic level – compression and expansion. Compression means ellipsis, semantic contraction, omission of redundant elements, and lexical folding.
Retsker Ya. I., on the contrary, names only two types of transformations. This linguist talks about such methods of their implementation as:
· Grammar transformations in the form of substitution of parts of speech or members of a sentence.
· Lexical transformations consist in concretization, generalization, differentiation of meanings, antonymic translation, compensation for losses arising in the process of translation, as well as in semantic development and holistic transformation.
An analysis of these linguistic views allows us to draw the following conclusion: each of these scientists (both practitioners and theorists) has his own point of view on the issue of transformations. For example, Fiterman and Levitskaya see three types - stylistic, grammatical, lexical transformations. The linguist Schweitzer is not talking about types, but about levels that make it possible to use transformation techniques. At the same time, he believes that both grammatical and lexical transformations can take place at the stylistic level. That is, different types of transformations can take place at the same level.
However, all researchers demonstrate the same set of techniques for implementing transformations of the translation plan. So, various substitutions - grammatical, realia, etc., generalization and compensation are found in all works. If we follow this with specific examples, it becomes obvious that Retsker, Fiterman, Levitskaya refer the techniques of concretization and generalization to the lexical variety of transformations. Schweitzer gives the concepts other names - hyponymic and hypernymic transformations - and indicates that their level is referential. We believe that these are phenomena of lexical transformation. Fiterman A. M. and Levitskaya T. R. attribute the method of compensation to a stylistic variety. Retzker - to the lexical, and Schweitzer - to the pragmatic level.
The technique of grammatical replacement is a grammatical type of transformation (according to Retsker Ya. I., Levitskaya T. R., Fiterman T. R.). However, Schweitzer A. D. calls in this case component level.
These discrepancies coexist with obvious similarities of all the above concepts. So, all linguists declare that the division of transformations into types and types is a convention. This is due to the fact that some transformations practically do not occur out of combination with other transformations, that is, not in their pure form. It is this moment that makes these classifications related.
But there are other points of view. For example, Minyar-Beloruchev R. K. named three types of transformations - lexical, grammatical, semantic. The first type included the methods of generalization and concretization; to the second - passivation, replacement of parts of speech and members of a sentence, combination of sentences or their articulation; to the third - metaphorical, synonymous, metaphorical substitutions, logical development of concepts, antonymic translation and compensation.
The concept of Komissarov V. N. is reduced to such types of transformations as lexical and grammatical, as well as complex. Speaking of lexical transformations, he names transliteration, translation transcription, tracing, some lexico-semantic substitutions. For example, modulation, instantiation and generalization. The grammatical transformations are literal translation (or syntactic assimilation), grammatical substitutions (replacement of sentence members, word forms, parts of speech) and sentence division. Complex transformations can also be called lexico-grammatical. This includes explication (in other words, descriptive translation), antonymic translation and compensation.
Barkhudarov L.S., a well-known linguist, named four types of transformations (transformations) that take place in the course of translation work. These are permutations, substitutions, deletions and additions.
The techniques used in permutation are changing the order of the components of a complex sentence, as well as changing the place of words and phrases. Barkhudarov included compensation, syntactic substitutions in the structure of a complex sentence, replacement of parts of speech, sentence components and word forms, concretization and generalization, segmentation and unification of a sentence, replacement of a cause with an effect (and vice versa), antonymic translation as methods of replacement. Omissions and additions have corresponding types of transformations - omission and addition.
We made sure that R.K. Minyar-Beloruchev divides translation transformations into three types - semantic, grammatical and lexical - depending on which plan of the source text should be translated: formal (external) or semantic (semantic). The nature of the elements of the source language, according to V. N. Komissarov, allows us to divide transformations into three types: grammatical, lexical and lexical-grammatical (complex). Barkhudarov L. S. believes that there are four types of translation metamorphoses that occur during the translation of the text.
It should also be emphasized that in the system of L. S. Barkhudarov, generalization and concretization transformations occurring at the lexical level are substitutions, since in this case an element of the language of the source text is replaced. And in V. N. Komisarov and R. K., these same transformations refer to lexical transformations. The replacements, according to L. S. Barkhudarov, include such transformations as the union and, conversely, the division of sentences, the replacement of parts of speech and sentence members. V. N. Komissarov and R. K. Minyar-Beloruchev attribute such techniques to the type of grammatical transformations.
The classification of translation transformations by V. N. Komisarov and R. K. Minyar-Beloruchev does not coincide on all counts. So, for example, V. N. Komissarov considers antonymic translation and compensation to be complex transformations, and R. K. Minyar-Beloruchev refers the above methods to semantic transformations. For comparison, L. S. Barkhudarov classifies antonymic translation and compensation as substitutions.
The classifications of scientists contain a number of methods of translation transformation that are not reflected in other classifications. So, L. S. Barkhudarov and R. K. Minyar-Beloruchev do not include the methods of transliteration and transcription identified by V. N. Komisarov as methods of translation transformations.
However, in general, each of the scientists, classifying translation transformations, dividing them into types in his opinion, deals with the same phenomena.
· lexical transformations, to which they refer such methods as compensation, antonymic translation, concretization, replacement of cause by effect and generalization.
· grammatical transformations, to which they include omissions, permutations, additions and transpositions.
Unlike them, L. K. Latyshev identifies six types of translation transformations:
1. Lexical transformations. To this type, the scientist refers to the replacement of lexemes with synonyms that depend on the context.
2. Stylistic transformations. In this case, there is a transformation of the stylistic coloring of the word being translated.
3. Morphological transformations. This includes converting one part of speech to another or replacing it with several parts of speech.
4. Syntactic transformations. The researcher refers to them the transformation of syntactic constructions (words, phrases and sentences), the change in the type of subordinate clauses, the change in the type of syntactic connection, the transformation of sentences into phrases and the rearrangement of subordinate parts in complex and compound sentences.
5. Semantic transformations. In textbooks and monographs on the theory of translation, this phenomenon is also referred to as "semantic development". In this column, Latyshev L. K. enters the replacement of feature details.
6. Transformations of a mixed type are a conversion transformation and an antonymic translation, according to L. K. Latyshev.
The next scientist Shchetinkin V. E., names the following types of translation transformations:
lexical. This includes concretization, antonymic translation, amplification, generalization, semantic agreement, adaptation, compensation, explication.
stylistic. The researcher is convinced that this type of translation transformation has one common technique, which is called modulation.
grammatical. VE Shchetinkin divides all transformations of this type into four subtypes. Among them are permutations, omissions, substitutions, additions.
To summarize the above data, it is worth noting that, one way or another, all transformations related to translation affect the aspect of the author's understanding of the text. All techniques and all types of certain translational transformations follow from this. The main rule of an interpreter is to follow the intuitive language, the main rule of a translator is to stay within the style. Transformation is a product of constant work, the quality of which depends on the level of language proficiency and the ability of the translator to adapt to the conditions of the source text.
Lecture 2. The concept of translation transformations. Lexical difficulties of translation. Lexical transformations.
2.1. The concept of translation transformations
The process of translation involves the conscious establishment of relationships between the data of the TL and the FL. Such relationships are a prerequisite for translation, since any interpretation of the original is associated with the selection of verbal means from the composition of the TL. Lexical, grammatical and stylistic difficulties are due to inconsistencies between the units of the TL and the FL.
To overcome them, special translation techniques are used, called transformations, i.e., interlingual substitution techniques to achieve equivalence between the original text and the translated text.
There are various classifications of translation transformations. For example, he suggests dividing transformations into four groups:
1) Transformations at the component level of semantic valence (replacement);
2) Transformations at the pragmatic level (translation compensation, replacement of certain stylistic means by others, replacement of allusions (realities) with similar, interpretive, explanatory translation);
3) Transformations at the referential level (concretization, generalization, replacement of realities, etc.);
4) Transformations at the stylistic level - compression and expansion.
names two types of transformations:
1) Grammatical transformations in the form of replacement of parts of speech or members of a sentence.
2) Lexical transformations (concretization, generalization, differentiation of meanings, antonymic translation, etc.).
Mignard named three types of transformations - lexical, grammatical, semantic. The first type included the methods of generalization and concretization; to the second - passivation, replacement of parts of speech and members of a sentence, combination of sentences or their articulation; to the third - metaphorical, synonymous, metaphorical substitutions, logical development of concepts, antonymic translation and compensation.
The concept is reduced to such types of transformations as lexical (transliteration, translation transcription, tracing, some lexico-semantic substitutions), grammatical (literal translation, grammatical substitutions and division of a sentence) and complex (explication or descriptive translation, antonymic translation and compensation).
called four types of transformations (transformations) that take place in the course of work on the translation. These are permutations, substitutions, deletions and additions.
Thus, the most common in various theories are the following types of transformations:
Lexical;
Stylistic.
The use of these transformations is due to the differences between the two languages at certain levels of their system. Such differences are called translation difficulties.
2.2. Lexical translation difficulties
Between the lexical units of the two languages in the process of translation, relations of correspondence, proximity in meaning are established.
Words and phrases that are close in meaning in the original language and the target language are called translation correspondences. Depending on the degree of proximity of the lexical systems of the two languages, three types of such correspondences can be distinguished:
1) Equivalent (constant) matches, when the meanings of words do not depend on the context. This group includes terms and precision words, that is, unambiguous, but, unlike terms, commonly used words. Precision words include proper names, names of days of the week and months, numerals.
2) Variant correspondences - words that have several meanings or variant correspondences. The choice of the target language unit in this case depends on the context. For example, the word soldier in Russian corresponds to the words soldier, private, soldier, military. The word flying can be translated as flying, flying, flying, flying (flying saucers flying saucers, flying apparatus aircraft, flying weather flying weather, the Flying Dutchman Flying Dutchman).
3) Non-equivalent lexical units - words that do not have regular matches in the target language. In this case, non-equivalent units are distinguished in relation to a pair of compared languages. A unit of the original language, which is not equivalent in relation to one language, may have correspondences in other languages.
Non-equivalent vocabulary is divided into referential - non-equivalent (non-equivalence is due to differences in the referential meaning of words - phenomena of reality, indicated by the word) and pragmatically non-equivalent (when non-equivalence is associated with the pragmatic meaning of words, reflecting the attitude of speakers to the object and including expressive-emotional assessment and connotations of cultural and historical and individual-psychological plan).
Referentially non-equivalent words include:
Some rare terms;
phraseological units;
Words with subjective evaluation suffixes: piglet, paw, baby;
Interjections;
Onomatopoeia: woof-woof, ding;
Associative gaps, i.e. words that have certain additional shades in the mind of a native speaker of a given language, associations that are absent in the mind of a native speaker of another language: rat - "coward"; crow - "razin"].
A special group of BELs is made up of proper names and addresses, the specificity of which lies in the fact that, depending on the chosen method of transmission, their non-equivalence will be either referential or pragmatic.
2.3. Main types of lexical transformations
If the translator encounters lexical difficulties, he is forced to resort to lexical transformations. There are five main types of lexical transformations:
1) Transliteration or transcription;
2) Tracing;
3) Lexico-semantic substitution, which includes concretization, generalization and modulation.
4) Translation comment.
5) Adequate replacement, which includes descriptive translation, antonymous translation and translation by compensation.
Transliteration and transcription
Transliteration is a translation technique based on the transfer of a graphic image of a foreign word, that is, on the transfer, for example, of English letters using the letters of the Russian alphabet. In this case, a foreign word or term is borrowed, which in writing is depicted by the letters of the target language, and in oral speech is pronounced according to the pronunciation norms of the target language.
Transcription is a translation technique based on the phonetic principle, i.e., for example, on the transfer of sounds of a foreign (foreign) name in Russian letters.
Transliteration is used to recreate the form of a foreign word in translation, mainly to convey proper names, geographical names, scientific terms and some untranslatable realities. For example, the English words Lady, lobby in Russian are transmitted as lady, lobby; Russian words muzhik, samovar, troika in English are transmitted as mujik, samovar, troika.
In the old days, English proper names were transmitted only by transliteration. Hence Newton instead of the current Newton, Wallas instead of Wallace, Worcester instead of Worcester, etc. At present, transliteration is giving way to transcription, and doublet terms appear: Newcastle - Newcastle, Greenwich - Greenwich, etc.
However, there are more or less fixed ways of rendering proper names - the traditional spelling. Traditional spelling concerns mainly translations of the names of historical figures, geographical names and realities. For example, Charles I - East. Charles I, not Charles (b) s, Nenru III - ist. Henry III, not Henry or Henry; James I Russian Jacob I, etc.
There are some Russian letter correspondences to English sounds.
(1) The sound [ae] is transmitted by the Russian letters "e" or "a":
Hampshire - Hampshire, Banf - Banff.
(2) The sound [e] is transmitted in three ways:
At the beginning of the word through "e": Essex - Essex;
After a vowel through "e": Coen - Cohen;
After a consonant through "e": Henden - Henden.
(3) The sound [^] is transmitted using the letter "a": Buckley - Buckley
(4) The sound [ə:] is usually transmitted through the letter "e": Serbiton - Serbiton.
(5) The sound [ə] is transcribed as the corresponding vowels of the full formation in the stressed syllable in order to preserve graphic correspondence:
Molton - Moulton, Norstad - Norstad, Miller - Miller.
(6) The sound [w] is transmitted in two ways:
Before the sound [u] through "in": Wood - Wood;
In other cases, through "y": Webster - Webster.
(7) The sound [h] is transmitted through the letter "x": Hodson - Hodson.
But in many cases, according to tradition, through the letter "g": Henry, Howard, Hyde Park.
(8) The sound [l] before the consonant and at the end of the word is transmitted through a solid “l”: Blackpool - Blackpool, Look - Bow.
(9) The sound [r] in all positions, even if it is not pronounced at all, is transmitted through "p": Darwin - Darwin, Ford - Ford.
(10) Sound [ θ ] is transmitted through "t" or less often through "s": Smith - Smith, North Darley - North Darley, Truth - Coward.
(11) Sound [ ð ] is transmitted through "z" or less often through "dz":
Rutherford - Rutherford; Smith, Brothers & Co. - Smith, Brothers & Co.
Doubled consonants are preserved in the intervocalic position and at the end of the word: Bennet - Bennet, Bess - Bess.
General Rules for Transferring Proper Names
At present, it is customary to translate anthroponyms and toponyms by transcription, for example: Smith - Smith, Brown - Brown, Georgia - Georgia. However, in some cases, when transferring multicomponent toponymic combinations, the following methods are used.
1) All components are translated (as a rule, traditionally), for example: Red Sea - Red Sea, The United States - United States.
2) All components are transcribed, for example: Frot Knox - Fort Knox.
3) Simultaneously translated (nominal component) and transcribed (own component), for example: Bonin Isles - Bonin Islands /
4) All components are transcribed, and the nominal component is added: Deep Valley - Deep Valley Valley, Atlantic City - Atlantic City.
The names of firms, corporations, companies, the names of newspapers and magazines, ships, streets, squares are translated in a similar way (with the exception of the traditional names - The Red Square - Red Square).
Names of political parties and public institutions usually translated: House of Commons - House of Commons.
Tracing
Tracing is a way of translating a lexical unit of the original by replacing its constituent parts - morphemes or words (in the case of set phrases) with their lexical counterparts in the target language.
The essence of tracing is to create a new word or stable combination in the TL, copying the structure of the original lexical unit: superpower - superpower, mass culture - mass culture.
Lexico-semantic substitution
Lexico-semantic replacement is a way of translating lexical units of the original by using units of the target language in the translation, the meaning of which does not coincide with the value of the original units, but can be derived from them using a certain type of logical transformations. The main types of such substitutions are concretization, generalization and modulation of the value of the original unit.
Concretization is the replacement of a word or phrase of the source language with a broader subject-logical meaning by a word and a phrase of the target language with a narrower meaning. As a result of applying this transformation, the FL unit expresses the generic concept, and the created correspondence (TL unit) expresses the specific concept. For example:
He was at the ceremony. - He attended the ceremony. In this case, the verb of broad semantics "was" was replaced in translation by the verb of narrower semantics "was".
Generalization is the replacement of a unit of the source language, which has a narrower meaning, with a unit of the translating language with a broader meaning, i.e., a transformation inverse to concretization. The created correspondence expresses a generic concept, including the original specific one:
He visits me practically every weekend. He visits me almost every week. Here, the use of a word with a more general meaning saves the translator from having to specify whether the author means Saturday or Sunday when he speaks of "weekend".
Modulation. Modulation, or semantic development, is the replacement of a word or phrase of the source language with a unit of the target language, the meaning of which is logically derived from the value of the original unit. Most often, the meanings of the related words in the original and in the translation turn out to be connected by cause-and-effect relationships:
I don't blame them. - I understand them. The cause has been replaced by the effect: I don't blame them, because I understand them.
He always made you say twice. - He always asked again.
Translation comment
A translation commentary is used when the translator finds it necessary to explain (for example, in a note, footnote or directly in the text in brackets) some realities that are not known to the Russian reader. This is especially true for transcribed words, the meanings of which, according to the translator, may not be clear from the text:
The Pentagon fears that the London talks may end in a ban of the H-bomob. - The Pentagon is afraid that an agreement will be reached at a conference in London to ban the hydrogen bomb.
Adequate replacement
An adequate replacement is the lexical development of a concept or interpretation by free transfer of the semantic content of the translated word or phrase, arising from the context. Adequate replacement includes such methods of translation as descriptive translation, antonymic translation, translation by means of compensation.
(1) Descriptive translation consists in conveying the meaning of a word in the source language by means of a more or less common explanation in the target language:
Energy factor -- tuning sharpness factor.
(2) An antonymic translation is a translation using the opposite form of turnover:
He sat in shortsleeves - he sat without a jacket (in a shirt with short sleeves);
Take it easy - don't worry
(3) Translation by means of compensation consists in expressing thoughts by means other than in the original, for example, when in the source text there are proverbs, sayings, idiomatic phrases, etc., which have a specific coloring that is lost during translation:
Never trouble trouble until trouble troubles you. - Do not wake famously while sleeping quietly.
Better save than sorry - God saves the safe.
Questions for self-control
1) What techniques are called translation transformations?
2) What groups are translation transformations traditionally divided into?
3) What are translation correspondences?
4) Name the main types of translation correspondences. Give examples.
5) What two groups is non-equivalent vocabulary divided into?
6) Name the five main types of lexical transformations.
7) What is the difference between transformation and transliteration? What technique is used most often?
8) Give examples of traditional translation.
9) What are the rules for the translation of proper names.
10) What is tracing?
11) Name the types of lexical substitution.
12) What is concretization?
13) What is generalization?
14) What is modulation?
15) What is a translation commentary?
16) Name the types of adequate replacement.
17) What is descriptive translation?
18) What is an antonymic translation?
19) What is compensation?
The main goal of translation is to achieve adequacy. The main task of the translator in achieving adequacy is to skillfully perform various translation transformations so that the translated text conveys as accurately as possible all the information contained in the original text, while observing the relevant norms of the target language.
Transformations, with the help of which the transition from original units to translation units is carried out, are called translation transformations. However, the term "transformation" cannot be taken literally: the original text itself is "not transformed" in the sense that it does not change itself. This text, of course, itself remains unchanged, but along with it and on the basis of it, another text in a different language is created.
Translation transformations are a special kind of paraphrasing - interlingual, which has significant differences from transformations within the same language. “When we talk about monolingual transformations, we mean phrases that differ from each other in grammatical structure, lexical content, have (practically) the same content and are capable of performing the same communicative function in this context. Comparing the source and translating texts, we involuntarily note that some parts of the source text are translated “word for word”, and some - with significant deviations from literal correspondences. Particularly noteworthy are those places where the translating text, in terms of its linguistic means, is completely different from the original. Consequently, in our linguistic consciousness there are some interlingual correspondences, deviations from which we perceive as interlingual transformations. Depending on the nature of the original language units, which are considered as initial operations, translation transformations are divided into stylistic transformations - the essence of which is to change the stylistic coloring of the translated unit.
The basic concept of translation theory is the concept of equivalence. When they say that a phrase in a foreign language and its translation are equivalent to each other, they mean, first of all, their semantic equivalence, i.e. relation to the same subject matter. HELL. Schweitzer distinguished two types of semantic equivalence - component and denotative. Considering that in translation we are dealing with meaning, i.e. one of the semantic components of a linguistic unit, we can say that semantic equivalence is achieved due to the presence in the text of the FL and the text of the TL of the same semes. In this case, the texts are in relation to component semantic equivalence. The second type of semantic equivalence, called denotative, is associated with the phenomenon of linguistic selectivity. Its essence lies in the fact that the same object and objective situation can be described from different angles by means of different signs: for example, “The picture is hanging on the wall” (state predicate), “The picture is hung on the wall” (action predicate) and “ I see a picture on the wall” (perception predicate). Different semantic predicates intersect and are interchangeable due to the fact that they describe the same situation. Unlike the component level of semantic equivalence, at the level of denotative equivalence, there is a semantic divergence between the source text and the target text. The equivalence relation here is based on equating different semantic components, but related to the same objective situation. He plays in the student team - Er ist der Glieder einer Studentenmannschaft. Thus, to achieve semantic equivalence, various translation transformations (transformations or replacements) are required. At the level of component equivalence, transformations are mainly used that affect the grammatical structure of the utterance. The level of denotative equivalence requires more complex lexical and grammatical transformations, which entail changes in the semantic structure of the utterance. It is necessary to define what translation transformations are in general and why they are needed. The first and main quality that a translator must possess is the ability to “see” translation problems, the ability not to succumb to the temptation of replacing the words of the original with the words of the target language. The inevitable consequence of the latter is a marriage of translation, called literalism. In the explanatory dictionary of translation terms of the linguist Komissarov, one can find a definition for this phenomenon: Grammatical literalism is the preservation of grammatical structures or forms of the original in the translated text.
Of course, if a thought can be expressed in the same way as it is expressed in the original, this should be done. So when translating the phrase “She lives in Berlin” as “Sie wohnt in Berlin”, there is a correspondence at all levels - formal and semantic. But such cases are the exception rather than the rule. Each language is a deeply original and specific phenomenon, and one should not expect frequent coincidences.
Comparative analysis of translations reveals, along with FL language units that have single or multiple correspondences in the TL, and such lexical and grammatical units for which there are no direct correspondences in the TL. FL units that do not have regular correspondences are called non-equivalent in the target language. Non-equivalent grammatical units can be both separate morphological forms (gerund) and parts of speech (article), and syntactic structures (absolute constructions). When translating, the existence of non-equivalent grammatical units does not cause any particular difficulties. The choice of grammatical form in translation depends not only and not so much on the grammatical form of the original, but on its lexical content, that is, on the nature and meaning of lexical units that receive a certain grammatical design in the utterance. Differences in such design, as a rule, are not an obstacle to establishing equivalence relations between statements in the original and in translation. It is in such cases that transformational translation is very often resorted to. Transformational translation consists in transferring the meaning of a non-equivalent unit using one of the grammatical transformations, which, along with lexical transformations, are used in the translation process. Different scholars have defined translation transformations in different ways. Morphological transformations are the replacement of one part of speech by another or several parts of speech. This type of transformation is widely used in translation. Their peculiarity is that they minimally affect the transmitted content - they do not entail significant content losses or modifications.
Syntactic transformations - the essence of which is to change the syntactic functions of words and phrases. The change in syntactic functions in the process of translation is accompanied by a restructuring of syntactic constructions: transformations of the same type subordinate clause in another. Syntactic transformations also include the replacement of the German passive construction with the Russian active one.
Semantic transformations are carried out on the basis of various causal relationships that exist between the elements of the described situations.
Semantic transformations are associated with deeper modifications in terms of content. Comparing languages with each other, we find in each such phenomena from them that have no correspondence in the other. Translation transformations are the essence of the translation process.
Lexical transformations - representing deviations from direct dictionary correspondences. Lexical transformations are caused mainly by the fact that the volume of meanings of lexical units of the source and target languages does not match.
Lexical transformations are used when translating if a non-standard linguistic unit at the word level occurs in the source text, for example, some proper name inherent in the source language culture and absent in the target language; a term in a particular professional field; words denoting objects, phenomena and concepts that are characteristic of the original culture or for the traditional naming of elements of a third culture, but which are absent or have a different structural and functional order in the translating culture. Such words occupy a very important place in the translation process, since, being relatively independent of the context, they nevertheless give the translated text a different direction, depending on the choice of the translator.
The lexical methods of translation include the following: transcription and transliteration, tracing, lexico-semantic substitutions, concretization, generalization, modulation or semantic development.
Transcription and transliteration
Translation transcription is a formal phonemic reproduction of the original lexical unit using the phonemes of the target language, phonetic imitation of the original word. Another method of translation is transliteration - a formal letter-by-letter recreation of the original lexical unit using the alphabet of the translating language, literal imitation of the form of the original word. At the same time, the original word in the translated text is presented in a form adapted to the pronunciation characteristics of the target language, for example, Scheckspier - Shakespeare: the Russian form of the name partially follows the rules for reading the German spelling of sounds (the sounds sh, k, p are direct analogues of the original ones), and partially transforms they are approximately similar - in cases where there are no phonetically analogues in the Russian language (German diphthongs turn into monophthongs e, and - according to the initial element of the diphthong).
In other words, transcription or transliteration (full or partial), the direct use of a given word denoting a realia, or its root in writing with the letters of one's language or in combination with suffixes of one's language.
Transliteration when translating into Russian is often used when it comes to the names of institutions, positions specific to a given country, i.e. about the sphere of social and political life, about the names of objects and concepts of material life, about the forms of addressing the interlocutor, etc.
The transliteration method of translation is widespread and leaves a significant mark both in Russian translated literature and in original works (fiction, journalistic, scientific). Evidence of this are, for example, words related to German public life, like "president", "sandwich", or to Spanish, like "hidalgo", "torero", "corrida", etc.; words associated with the life of the French city, such as "fiacre", "concierge"; German addresses "frau", "herr" and many others like them.
There is no such word that could not be translated into another language, at least descriptively, i.e. common combination of words in a given language. But transliteration is necessary precisely when it is important to observe the lexical brevity of the designation corresponding to its familiarity in the original language, and at the same time emphasize the specificity of the thing or concept called, if there is no exact match in the target language. When evaluating the feasibility of using transliteration, it is necessary to take into account exactly how important the transfer of this specificity is. If the latter is not required, then the use of transliteration turns into an abuse of foreign borrowings, leads to obscuring the meaning and clogging the native language.
Of particular note as a translation problem are the so-called realities, the naming of national cultural objects that are characteristic of the original culture and relatively little or not at all known to the translating culture. In the context of a large intercultural communication such denominations form a very large group, and the most common way they are rendered in another language is by translation transcription or standard transliteration.
The expediency and legitimacy of transliteration in certain cases is proved by the fact that often authors writing about the life of other peoples resort to this language tool as a way to name and emphasize the reality specific to the life of a given people. For example, the words "aul", "kishlak", "saklya" and many others entered the Russian language, and it was in this transliteration that they became traditional. This emphasized the specificity of the thing denoted by the word, its difference from what could be approximately denoted by the corresponding Russian word (cf. "aul" and "kishlak", on the one hand, and "village", on the other, "saklya" or " hut" and "hut"). An example of words borrowed by the original literature through transliteration serves as a motivation for using such words in translation.
Often, foreign words are transferred into the target language precisely to highlight the shade of specificity that is inherent in the reality they express - with the possibility of lexical translation, more or less accurate.
When a transliterated word is rarely used or, moreover, is transferred to a Russian translated text for the first time, a commentary explanation and an appropriate context may be necessary.
However, in Russian translations of Western European fiction lately, there has been an increasing tendency to avoid such words that would require explanatory notes not intended by the original - i.e. namely transliterated designations of foreign realities, except for those that have already become familiar. On the contrary, in modern translations from the languages of the East, transliteration is used quite often when it comes to things or phenomena specific to material or social life, i.e. that do not match with us.
Transliteration and transcription are used to translate proper names, names of peoples and tribes, geographical names, names of business institutions, companies, firms, periodicals, names of sports teams, stable groups of rock musicians, cultural objects, etc. Most of these names are relatively easy to transcribe or, more rarely, transliterate.
In relation to foreign proper names - whether they are the names or surnames of real or fictitious persons, geographical names, etc. - Of great importance is the question of their sound design in translation and, accordingly, of their writing. The more discrepancies in the phonetic structure of the two languages, in the composition and system of their phonemes, the more acute this issue.
In the presence of a common alphabet system in two languages (as, for example, in Western European Romance, Germanic and Finno-Ugric languages), the reproduction of the sound form of names in translations and in original texts is generally abandoned, limited only to the exact reproduction of their spelling - transliteration. In Russian literature - both translated and original - there is (to the extent possible) a tradition of transferring the sound image of foreign proper names. Of course, with a significant phonetic difference between two languages (as, for example, between German and Russian), the reproduction of their phonetic side can only be partial and conditional and usually represents a certain compromise between the transmission of sound and spelling.
The rule that exists in translation practice for applying translation transcription or transliteration to names often turns out to be insufficient if a proper name is burdened with a symbolic function, that is, it becomes the name of a unique object, or is used not as a name, but as, for example, a nickname, that is, it is a peculiar name common noun, as it reflects the individual characteristics and properties of the named object. In such cases, in addition to transcription or instead of it, a combination of semantic translation with tracing is used. In some cases, tradition will require different renderings of the same name, of the same language, for different texts: thus, the English "Georg" is usually transcribed in the form "George", but when it is the name of a king, it is transliterated in the form "George".
Finally, a special type of language units, usually subject to transcription, are terms. Transcriptions are usually sourced from Greek, Latin or German units, depending on which roots underlie the original term. Russian terms marked with national flavor also often become the object of transcription when translated into English:
Chernozem - Tschernosem
Duma - Duma, etc.
When it comes to common names (big cities, rivers, famous historical figures) or common names, the translator is guided by tradition - regardless of the opportunity to get closer to the original sound.
Tracing
Along with translation transliteration, for language units that do not have a direct correspondence in the target language, tracing is sometimes used - the reproduction of not the sound, but the combinatorial composition of a word or phrase, when the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) or phrases (lexemes) are translated by the corresponding elements of the target language. Tracing as a translation technique served as the basis for a large number various kinds of borrowings in intercultural communication in cases where transliteration was for some reason unacceptable. However, tracing as a PT is less common than transcription or transliteration.
Unlike transcription, tracing is not always a simple mechanical operation of transferring the original form into the target language; Often you have to resort to some transformations. First of all, this concerns changes in case forms, the number of words in a phrase, affixes, word order, morphological or syntactic status of words, etc.
In the work we are studying, E.M. Remarque, tracing has not been encountered, so the examples given are taken from other sources.
A large number of phrases in the political, scientific and cultural fields are practically tracing papers:
Supreme Court - Oberster Gerichtshof
Gemischte Gesetzte - mixed laws
Terms are usually subject to tracing, we will widely use words and phrases:
names of historical and cultural monuments
Winter Palace -Winterpalast
Das WeiYae Haus - The White House.
names of political parties and movements
Demokratische Partei - Democratic Party
Our home - Russia - Unser Haus ist RuЯland,
Modulation or semantic development
The reception of semantic development consists in replacing the dictionary correspondence in translation with contextual, logically related to it. This includes various metaphorical and metonymic substitutions made on the basis of the category of crossing.
If we take into account that all significant parts of speech are divided into three categories: objects, processes and signs, then in the course of translation there is an amazing variety of substitutions both within each category and between different categories. To convey the same content by means of another language, it often does not matter what form of the word this content will be expressed. An object can be replaced by its sign, a process by an object, a sign by an object or process, etc.
Modulation or semantic development is the replacement of a word or phrase in a foreign language, the meanings of which can be deduced logically from the initial meaning.
Grammatical transformations - consist in the transformation of the sentence structure in the process of translation in accordance with the norms of the target language.
In the process of translation activity, transformations are most often of a mixed type. As a rule, various kinds of transformations are carried out simultaneously, that is, they are combined with each other - a permutation is accompanied by a replacement, a grammatical transformation is accompanied by a lexical one.
The given translation transformations are contextual-synonymous replacements of lexemes. The given examples of interlingual transformations of various types show with sufficient obviousness that translation transformations in many cases lead to certain modifications of the content.
Having considered the types of translation transformations, we will proceed to consider their classification, proposed by such scientists as L.S. Barkhudarov, V.N. Komissarov, Ya.I. Retzker and L.K. Latyshev.
Khudorozhkova Olga Evgenievna
5th year student, Department of Theory and Practice of Translation and foreign languages, NOU VPO Omsk Institute of International Management and Foreign Languages "In.Yaz.-Omsk", Russian Federation, Omsk
E- mail: Olga . Hudorozhkova @ yandex . en
Kryukova Natalia Nikolaevna
scientific adviser,senior lecturer of the departmenttheory and practicetranslation and foreign languages, Omsk Institute of International Management and Foreign Languages "In.Yaz.-Omsk", Russian Federation, Omsk
It is a well-known fact that the history of translation is rooted in the distant past, to those times when there was a need for communication between peoples who speak different languages. During this period, a need arose for people who would act as intermediaries in communication between multilingual peoples.
At present, the importance of translation in our lives is increasing, because thanks to the active process of integration, the urgent need for qualified translators can be observed in all areas of our society. Active flows of information crossed out all boundaries and spaces. If in the recent past the main volume of translation activity was reduced to translations of fiction, today the first place, both in importance and in volume, is taken by translations of works with a special focus. Basically, these are texts of economic, technical, legal topics.
For a person who is engaged in translation activities, it is very important to realize what translation is, what stages this process consists of, how to achieve an adequate translation. Only knowledge and the ability to use all these aspects of translation activity together can ensure the creation of a high-quality translation of both fiction and texts with a special focus. It is very important for the translator to find a thin thread of contact with the reader, and here, of course, there may be some peculiarities, since the translator and the reader can be separated by time and space. Each reader has more than once faced the problem of not understanding a work of art in their native language, it is even more difficult to study a work not in the original, but through translation. In this case, the communication process involves not two people (writer and reader), but three (writer, translator and reader). And the translator performs a specific function - using all the baggage of his knowledge and skills of translation activity, he conveys in the translating language not only the thoughts and ideas of the author, but also his attitude, intonation and feelings. The translator must convey the ideas and thoughts of the author to the reader.
But each of us has his own unique individuality and it is precisely because of this that it is impossible to create two absolutely identical versions of the translation of the same work of art. The ability to create helps the translator to create his own, exclusive version of the translation. It is important to remember that a strong departure from the original and excessive enthusiasm for creativity leads to serious translation errors, the main of which is inadequacy, which is expressed in a giant gap between the original and the translated text. To avoid such failures, a professional translator should not go beyond the boundaries of translation ethics.
As noted above, all texts to be translated are very diverse and differ both in genre and in the method of translation. Despite the variety of texts, they can be subjected to a certain classification. If we consider the text from the point of view of the message function, we can define the following types of translation: scientific translation, translation of technical literature, translation of religious works, literary translation, etc. In our work, we will focus on the translation of literary texts and consider this type of translation more in detail.
It may seem that literary translation is the most well studied, since it is a very ancient type of translation. But this opinion is erroneous, since over time the language undergoes various changes and transformations. Therefore, literary translation is also in constant motion. And the most interesting thing is that it is novelty that is an important condition for its development and successful functioning.
Artistic texts include a huge range of genres. These works should carry two main functions: to make an impact on the reader and enrich him aesthetically. Since rationality is given a secondary role in the literature, the most important here is the aesthetic knowledge of reality. In any literary text, a special place is occupied by the form of presentation. Artistic works are distinguished by a wide range of means that the author uses in unlimited quantities when creating them. And each creator strives to create something special, not like existing works.
When creating a literary translation, it is necessary to avoid two extremes: on the one hand, this is a literal translation devoid of artistic coloring, on the other hand, this is the creation of an artistically complete translation, but devoid of equivalence with the original text. Therefore, the translator must strictly follow a large number of requirements in order to translate the work and not lose its artistry, as well as to get as close to the original as possible.
But not always a translator needs only knowledge, he must have special skills, so he needs to be fluent in both foreign and native languages. It follows from this that future translators should pay special attention to learning their native language when studying.
Of course, cultural differences play an important role in the translation process. Very often this is the main reason for the losses that are inevitable in the translation of folklore, slang and dialect elements. Differences in cultures are the cause of the difficulties that one way or another can be traced in the text of the translation. It is necessary to keep this in mind and try to minimize the losses associated with this factor during the transfer process. This can be achieved through the use of personal names, names of plants and animals, geographical names.
All literary texts differ from other types of texts in that they carry the flavor of the author's individuality. But the number of translations of the same work can be created an unlimited number. The presence of a large number of translations of the same work of art indicates the relevance and special significance of the work for readers. Of course, each translation will include the individual characteristics of the translator, which distinguish it not only from the original, but also from all other translations of the same text.
From all of the above, we can conclude that literary translation is a fact of linguistic and literary activity. In literary translation, deviations from the highest degree of semantic accuracy are quite possible in order to preserve the artistry of the text during translation. Very often, for this, the translator has to resort to the use of transformations, and their appropriate use is the main task when working on the translation text. Through the use of translation transformations, the translator makes a transition from original units to translation units. If we consider this concept in a wider range, then we can say that translation transformations are reduced to the replacement when translating one form to another, which is a transformation, that is, these are operations to re-express the meaning. Translation transformation is a paraphrase that belongs to a special interlingual type. If we compare the original text and its translation, we will see that some parts of the original are translated verbatim, while others are very different from the original text. Often you can find segments in which the translated text has nothing to do with the original. This is a prime example of the use of translation modifications.
What types of translation transformations are used in the translation of works of art? So, translation transformations are divided into:
Stylistic transformations- this is a change in the stylistic coloring of the translated passage. For example: “Rosaleen had never had a child herself, so for the last ten years I’d been her pet guinea pig” . - Rosalind never had children of her own, so for the last ten years I have been her favorite guinea pig.
Morphological transformations is the replacement of one part of speech by another or several parts of speech. For example: “I stopped buttoning and grabbed them up, fumbling with them, unable to think what to do, how to hide them” . - I stopped fastening and grabbed mother's things, began to feel them, unable to figure out what to do with them, how to hide them.
Syntactic transformations- this is a change in the syntactic functions of words and phrases. For example: “I heard a slow song of wind drift ever so slightly in the street behind us and move along the gutter” . - The wind sang its slow song following us down the street.
Semantic transformations- this is the recoding of information at the semantic level. For example: " I could not hear myself think for all the bee hum” . - Due to the buzzing of bees, all thoughts were mixed up in my head.
Lexical transformations are deviations from direct dictionary correspondences. For example: “The one thing about him was the smallness of his ears, the ears of a child, ears like little dried apricots” . - He had one peculiarity- very small ears, the same as a child's, these ears resembled small dried apricots.
Grammatical transformations- this is the transformation of the sentence structure in the process of translation in accordance with the norms of the target language. For example: “People in the back of police cars were not given the benefit of door handles or window cranks, I noticed, so we were glad not to know” . - People sitting on back seat police car, do not rely door handles And window lifters, but it seemed to me it would be better for us not to know.
Most often, in the course of translation activities, transformations of a mixed type are used. Usually, different types of transformations are used simultaneously, that is, they are combined with each other. It is this complex, complex nature of translation transformations that makes translation such a complex and difficult task.
The given examples of interlingual transformations of various types show that translation transformations in many cases lead to certain changes in the content.
There are a large number of classifications of translation transformations. The most famous of them are the classifications proposed by such famous linguists as. L.S. Barkhudarov, V.N. Komissarov and Ya.I. Retzker. Any of these three classifications can be taken as a basis when working on the translation of literary works, but we consider it appropriate to offer our own classification, which, in our opinion, is the most complete and convenient to use. Based on practical analysis, we came to the conclusion that all transformations can be represented as the following classification:
Lexical translation transformations are used if an unusual language unit is found in the original. It can be a proper name, a term, as well as words that denote phenomena and objects characteristic of the original culture. These include:
Transcription - this is a phonemic recreation of the original lexical unit, using the phonemes of the target language. For example: “His only kindness was for snout, his bird dog, who slept in his bed and got her stomach scratched anytime she rolled on to her wiry back” . His kindness extended only to Snowton, his hunting dog, who slept in his bed and was scratched by him every time she lay down on her back.
Transliteration is a letter-by-letter recreation of the original lexical unit using the alphabet of the target language. For example: “The policeman driving us to jail was Mr. Avery Gaston, but men at the Esso station called him Shoe” . - The name of the policeman who drove us to the jail was Mr. Avery Gaston, although the people at Esso station called him Shoe.
Lexico-semantic transformations. These types of transformations include:
Addendum is used in cases when, during translation, for an adequate understanding of the text of the translation by the reader, it is necessary to add individual words or phrases. For example: “I don’t remember what they said, only the fury of their words, how the air turned raw and full of welts” . I don't remember what they were talking about, I only remember fury, with which their words sounded, and how the air became cold and all in scars.
Omission is the opposite of adding and is used when there is a need to omit individual words or phrases in the target text. For example: " Mostly I stayed out of his way” . I tried to stay as far away from him as possible.
Replacement - this is a change of words or phrases in the translation, thanks to which the translator seeks to achieve the greatest equivalence with the original. This group includes the following transformations:
Specification is a translation of words or phrases with more precise or specific meanings than those noted in dictionaries. For example: “He looked like somebody just out of high school, who'd flunked PE and hung out with the shop boys smoking at recess” . - He looked like high school graduate who failed the PE exam and hanging around with the guys from the store, smoking at recess.
Generalization - a technique opposite to concretization. The meaning of this type of transformation is as follows: instead of words with a specific meaning in one language, a word with a more general meaning in another is used. For example: “The road stretched empty as far as I could see, with heat shimmer making the air seem wavy in places” . - As far as I could see, the road was empty, and warm from it, making the air seem wavy in places.
Antonymic translation is the translation of words or phrases by opposite concepts. For example: “I sat on a Coke crate and watched pickups zoom by till I was nearly poisoned with exhaust fumes and boredom” . - I sat on a Coca-Cola crate and watched pickup trucks go by until exhaust fumes and boredom did not overcome me.
Holistic Rethinking - this is a transformation of the internal form of a sentence, both a separate turn of speech and the entire sentence. For example: “During the day I heard them tunneling the walls of my bedroom, sounding like a radio turned to static in the next room, and imagined them in there turning the walls into honeycombs, with honey seeing out for me to taste” . - During the day I listened to how they tunneling through the walls of my bedroom, making the sound of a radio, as if it were in the next room, and imagined walls turning into honeycombs, and like honey slowly seeps into me.
Modulation - this is a deeper semantic development of a particular lexical unit or phrase. For example: “T. Ray will tell her “ iron my two shirts,” and she’ ll iron the blue shirts” . - T. Ray can tell her: “Put the butter on the table” and she will bring the meat.”
Grammatical transformations- this is a change in the structure of the sentence, as well as various substitutions within the sentence. These types of transformations include:
Conversion is a change in the translation of the part of speech of a word. For example: “I was worried so much about how I looked and whether I was doing things right, I felt half the time I was impersonating a girl instead of really being one” . - I worried too much about how I look and whether I'm doing everything right, it seemed to me that half the time I was only playing the role of a girl, instead of being her in real.
Split - this is an extension of the composition of a word or phrase in the target text. For example: “She was full of crazy ideas that I ignored, but I lay there thinking about this one, wondering if the bees had come with my death in mind” . - Her head was full of crazy ideas, to which I did not attach any importance, but I lay and thought about it, wondering if the bees wanted to take my life.
contraction - this transformation is the opposite of splitting and leads to a change in the grammatical structure of the sentence due to the omission of words or phrases. For example: “The exploding sound had started to echo around in my head” . - Bursting sound scattered echo in my head.
Syntactic transformations is a change in the syntactic structure of a sentence or sentences. These types of transformations include:
Changing the order of words in a sentence is a change in the location of the members of the proposal. For example: “There was a photograph of a woman smirking in front of an old car, wearing a light-colored dress with padded shoulders” . - There was a photo of a woman with a goofy smile on her face, she was wearing a light dress with false shoulders and stood next to the old car.
Division of a sentence in translation - division of a complex sentence into several simple ones. For example: “Mr. Gaston was in the station alone, eating boiled peanuts at his desk, when Brother Gerald and I came through the door” . - When my brother Gerald and I entered the police station, Mr. Gaston was alone. He sat at the table and ate peanuts.
Combining sentences when translating - combining sentences when translating into one. For example: “The gun shining like a toy in her hand, how he snatched it away and waved it around. The gun on the floor. Bending to pick it up. The noise that exploded around us” . - First the gun flashes like a toy in her hands, then he draws it and swings it around, then the gun falls to the floor, I bend down to pick it up and - the sound of the shot envelops us.
Summarizing the above, it should be noted that during the translation certain relationships are built between two works in different languages (the original text and the translated text). By comparing such texts, one can determine the internal mechanism of translation, establish equivalent units, and detect changes in form and content.
Transformation is the basis of most translation techniques. Having analyzed the essence of translation modifications and their classification, we can conclude that any translation from one language to another requires a competent approach, knowledge of both languages and cultures of these language owners in perfection. An accurate, adequate translation is inevitable without the use of interlingual transformations, that is, translation transformations.
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