Geographical location and history of Afghanistan. A complete description of Afghanistan Afghanistan in ancient times and in the Middle Ages

Authors: E. V. Baranchikov (General information), V. V. Maklakov (Public system), A. I. Voropaev (Nature: physical-geographical sketch, Economy), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and useful fossils), V. G. Korgun, T. K. Karaev (Historical sketch), V. S. Nechaev (Health), A. L. Simakova (Education), A. S. Gerasimova (Literature), V. N. Yunusova (Music), K. E. Razlogov (Cinema)Authors: E.V. Baranchikov (General information), V.V. Maklakov (Governmental system), A.I. Voropaev (Nature: physical-geographical sketch, Economy); >>

AFGHANISTAN, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

General information

A. is a state in South-West Asia. It borders on the north with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, on the east on China and India, on the southeast and south on Pakistan, on the west on Iran. Area 645.7 thousand km2. Population 27.1 million people. (2015, evaluation). The capital is Kabul. The official languages ​​are Pashto and Dari. The monetary unit is Afghani. Administrative division: 34 wilayats (provinces) (Table 1).

Table 1. Administrative-territorial division (2015)

Vilayat	Area, thousand km 2	Population, thousand people	Administrative center
Baghlan	21,1	910,8	Puli-Khumri
Badakhshan	44,1	951,0	Faizabad
Badghis	20,6	496,0	Kalai-Nau
Balkh	17,2	1325,7	Mazar-i-Sharif
Bamiyan	14,2	447,2	Bamiyan
Wardak	8,9	596,3	Maidanshahr
Ghazni	22,9	1228,8	Ghazni
Herat	54,8	1890,2	Herat
Helmand	58,6	924,7	Lashkar Gah
Gore	36,5	690,3	Chagcharan
Daikundi	8,1	424,3	Neely
Jowzjan	11,8	540,3	Shibergan
Zabul	17,3	304,1	Kalat
Kabul	4,5	4373,0	Kabul
Kandahar	54,0	1226,6	Kandahar
Kapisa	1,8	441,0	Mahmoud-Raqi
Kunar	4,9	450,7	Asadabad
Kunduz	8,0	1010,0	Kunduz
Lagman	3,8	445,6	Mehtarlam
Logar	3,9	393,0	Puliyalam
Nangarhar	7,7	1517,4	Jalalabad
Nimruz	41,0	165,0	Zaranj
Nuristan	9,2	148,0	Parun
Paktika	19,5	434,7	Sharan
Paktia	6,4	552,0	Gardez
Panjshir	3,6	153,5	Bazarak
Parvan	6,0	664,5	Charikar
Samangan	11,3	387,9	Samangan (Aybak)
Sari-Pul	16,0	559,6	Sari-Pul
Takhar	12,3	983,3	Talukan
Uruzgan	22,7	386,8	Tarinkot
Farah	48,5	507,4	Farah
Faryab	20,3	998,1	Maymene
Host	4,2	574,6	Host

A. - member of the UN (1946), IMF (1955), IBRD (1955), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO; 1992); observer at the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO; 2012), CSTO (2013).

Political system

A. is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted on January 16, 2004. The form of government is a presidential republic.

The head of state and executive power is the president, elected for a term of 5 years through direct elections (with the right to one re-election). Under the president there are two vice-presidents. Only a Muslim by religion born of Afghan parents can be president. The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. His powers include the implementation of national policies subject to approval by the National Assembly; appointment of ministers, director of the central bank, judges of the Supreme Court, prosecutor general, etc.

Legislative power belongs to the National Assembly, consisting of two chambers: the lower - the People's Chamber (Valesi Jurga) and the upper - the House of Elders (Meshrano Jurga). The People's Chamber (250 deputies) is elected by direct voting according to the proportional system for 5 years; at least 64 deputies (2 from each province) must be women. The House of Elders includes an indefinite number of members (appointed by local officials, provincial and district councils, and the president). The House of Elders reviews laws, the country's budget and international treaties after they are approved by the People's Chamber.

Executive power is exercised by the government - the cabinet of ministers (27 members appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly).

Nature

Relief

A. is located in the northeast of the Iranian Plateau. The mountains occupy approx. 3/4 of the country's territory (see map of Afghanistan). In the northeast stretch the ridges of the Hindu Kush mountain system. The highest is the eastern part of the Hindu Kush with peaks above 6000 m [height up to 6843 m, Mount Tirgaran, according to other sources up to 7485 m; Mount Noushak (Noshak, Naushak) is the highest point of the country] and passes at an altitude of 3500–4600 m (the most important are Salang, Barogil, Khavak). Alpine ridges with narrow ridges, steep slopes, deep valleys and mid-mountain ranges with smooth peaks and soft outlines are typical. Increased seismicity is characteristic, avalanches, screes and rockfalls often occur, and mudflows occur in the valleys. Located south of the Hindu Kush Central Afghan mountains(Hazarajat), fan-shaped to the southwest. In the north-west is the Paropamiz mountain system, consisting of a number of folded latitudinal chains: the Bandi-Turkestan mountains (up to 3485 m), the axial Safedkokh ridge (Ferozkokh, up to 3371 m) and the Siakhkokh mountains, separated by river valleys. The foothills, covered with loess, pass in the north into Bactrian plain. Closer to the Amu Darya valley, loess deposits are replaced by sands.

In the southeast is the Ghazni-Kandahar plateau (height up to 3265 m, Mount Khumbur-Khule-Ghar), crossed by wide river valleys. The southern and southwestern parts are occupied by hilly plateaus up to 1200 m high with the clayey-gravelly desert of Dashti-Margo and the sandy deserts of Registan, Garmser with loose dunes. Near the border with Pakistan there is a depression with the drying up salt lake Gaudi Zira, on the border with Iran there is the large Sistan Basin, in which the deltas of the Helmand and other rivers flowing from the surrounding mountains are located. The lowest part of the depression is occupied by the fresh end lake Hamun. In the south are the Chagai Mountains (height 1729 m).

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of A. is mainly located within Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt. The northern part belongs to the southern edge of the Turan young platform (plate), deformed in the Oligocene - Quaternary due to the collision (collision) of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian lithospheric plates. The platform has a Paleozoic granite-metamorphic basement and a Jurassic-Eocene sedimentary cover. Its southern part - the Bandi-Turkestan ridge - was pulled into uplifts, and the northern part - into subsidence with the formation of the Afghan-Tajik intermountain depression, filled with thick Oligocene-Quaternary molasse. To the south of the Gerirud (Main Hindu Kush) fault - in the narrow Bandi-Bayan zone - highly dislocated Paleozoic formations can still be traced. To the south, the Farakhrud zone stands out, in the place of which, starting from the Triassic, there existed a branch of the Tethys oceanic basin. Fragments of its crust ( ophiolites) and sedimentary infill (Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic shales and Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous flysch) are developed. The strata are intensely deformed and intruded by granites. To the southeast is the Central Afghan middle massif (in the past - microcontinent in Tethys) with a heterogeneous Precambrian basement and Phanerozoic cover. The Seistan depression, filled with Neogene-Quaternary molasse, is superimposed on the southern part of the massif and the southwestern continuation of the Farakhrud zone. To the south of it is the Chagai volcanoplutonic uplift, a link in the Cretaceous volcanic arc bordering the middle massif from the east. In the east there is a large Chaman-Mukur submeridional fault ( shift), behind which there is the Katawaz Paleogene flysch trough and the Kabul Precambrian block. Northern Afghanistan is a highly seismic region. Destructive earthquakes - in 1993, 1998, 2002, 2015.

On the territory of Azerbaijan there are known deposits of oil (Angot), natural combustible gas (Dzharkuduk), and coal (Darai-Suf). Large deposits of iron ores (Hadzhigek), copper (Ainak, one of the largest in South Asia), and rare metals (Darai-Pich) have been explored. There are deposits of alluvial gold, ornamental and precious stones (the best lapis lazuli in the world is the Sari-Sang deposit, marble onyx, jewelry tourmaline, ruby, emerald), as well as barite, sulfur, talc, magnesite, rock salt and other minerals.

Climate

The territory of A. has a subtropical continental, dry climate. Climatic conditions vary depending on the altitude of the area, and in the mountains also on the exposure of the slopes. Average air temperatures in January on the plains are from 0 to 8 °C, in the highlands in some places below –20 °C (positive up to an altitude of 1300–1600 m), in July 24–32 °C and 0–10 °C, respectively. In Kabul (at an altitude of 1791 m) the average temperature in January is –2.3 °C, in July 25 °C. In the deserts, 40–50 mm of precipitation falls per year, in the driest regions in the west and southwest – 50–75 mm, on the plateaus – 200–250 mm, on the windward slopes of the Hindu Kush 400–600 mm, in the southeast of A. , where the monsoons penetrate from the Indian Ocean, about 800 mm. Maximum precipitation occurs in winter and spring (except for the southeastern part). At an altitude of 3000–5000 m, snow cover lasts 6–8 months. The snow line lies on the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush at an altitude of 4700 m, on the southern slopes - about 5400 m, and there are large glaciers on the alpine ridges. The plains are characterized by severe droughts, the frequency of which has increased in recent decades. Dust storms are typical for the south of Africa.

Inland waters

Most of the rivers belong to the area of ​​internal flow; the largest of them is the Amu Darya (in the upper reaches - Pyanj) with its tributaries Kokcha and Kunduz. 55% of Amu Darya's water resources are concentrated in the Amu Darya basin. Other rivers flow into lakes (Hilmand, Farah-Rud) or are lost in desert areas (Gerirud, Murghab - on the territory of Turkmenistan, Balkh, etc.). The Kabul River (a tributary of the Indus) belongs to the Indian Ocean basin. The mountains are characterized by a dense river network, 80% of the river flow is formed in the Hindu Kush, the rivers are fed mainly by melt water from mountain snow and glaciers. The rivers of the plains experience high water in the spring; in the summer they become shallow or dry up, and their waters are diverted for irrigation. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential. There are few lakes; the largest are Navur, Abi-Istadayi-Ghazni, etc. Small desert lakes dry up in summer (salt lakes turn into salt marshes). Groundwater in many regions of Azerbaijan is the main source of irrigation and water supply, as well as water supply to populated areas. Large artesian regions are North Afghan and South Afghan.

Annually renewable water resources are 65.33 km 3 (2011), water availability is low – 823 m 3 per person per year. Annual water intake is 20.28 km 3, including for the needs of agriculture 98%, industry - 1%, municipal sector - 1%.

Soils, vegetation and fauna

Gray soils, brown desert-steppe soils and saline soils are common in the foothills and valleys. On the mountain slopes there are mountain gray soils and gray-brown soils. In the highlands there are mountain meadow-steppe and mountain meadow soils. Large areas are occupied by rocky, gravelly surfaces and sand.

There are 3,500–4,000 species of vascular plants growing on the territory of Armenia. The vegetation is predominantly desert and desert-steppe. Typical desert subshrubs are teresken, astragalus, cushion-shaped acantholimons, wormwood. On the northern foothill plains, ephemeral sedge-bluegrass deserts with an abundance of early flowering ephemerals are developed. Above that, desert-steppe types of communities with wormwood, bulbous bluegrass, and camel thorn are common. Northern Africa is an area of ​​the best pastures and arable land. At altitudes of 2000–2500 m, mainly in Paropamise, there are juniper and pistachio woodlands. In the highlands there are formations of mountain xerophytes. In the mountainous regions bordering Pakistan at altitudes of 750–1500 m, steppes alternate with forests of Indian palm, acacia, fig, and almond; up to an altitude of 2200–2400 m – forests of evergreen balut oak and Gerard pine; higher (up to 3500 m) – forests from Himalayan pine with an admixture of Himalayan cedar and Western Himalayan fir. At altitudes of 3500–4000 m, thickets of elfin juniper and rhododendron are common; higher up there are alpine and subalpine meadows. In the Amu Darya valley there are tugai forests. Closed forests occupy 2.1% of the territory, open forests and sparse thickets - 45.2% (2015).

The animal life of the world is diverse. According to various estimates, Africa is home to 137–150 species of mammals, 428–515 species of birds, 92–112 species of reptiles, and 101–139 species of fish. Spotted hyenas, jackals, kulans, gazelle and saiga antelopes are common in deserts and steppes; in the mountains - snow leopard, mountain goats, and argali. Afghan fox, stone marten, and wolves are widespread. Wild boar and jungle cat are found in the tugai thickets. Endangered - argali, snow leopard, etc. Many reptiles (monitor lizards, agamas, snakes, including poisonous ones - viper, cobra, efa, copperhead), rodents, insects, including agricultural animals. pests (locusts), and poisonous arachnids (scorpions, karakurt).

Condition and protection of the environment

The ecological situation is tense. 75% of Azerbaijan's territory is subject to desertification processes, especially in the northern, western and southern provinces. Among the main factors of desertification are overgrazing by livestock on scarce semi-desert pastures, plowing of sloping lands and soil degradation. Soils are severely depleted on 16% of the territory as a result of water and wind erosion, loss of fertility, and salinization.

Illegal logging and export of wood to Pakistan, and the collection of wood for fuel needs by the local population lead to deforestation of mountain slopes and destruction of woodlands. The frequency of catastrophic landslides and floods has increased due to spring rains and accelerated melting of snow in the mountains. Uncontrolled hunting and trapping of large animals and birds are common.

On the territory of Africa there is the Bandi-Amir National Park, located at the sources of the river of the same name and preserving the ecosystems of high-mountainous dry steppes and lakes on the slopes of the spurs of the Hindu Kush. 2 waterfowl reserves (Abi-Istadayi-Ghazni and Navur) and 2 reserves (Adjara Valley and Great Pamir). 6 OPTs are occupied by St. 258 thousand hectares. It is planned to create 8 more protected natural areas.

Population

Between 38 and 50% of Afghanistan's population (2014) are Pashtuns, who predominate in the west, south and east of the country. In the south (the south of the provinces of Nimruz, Helmand and Kandahar) there are also Western Baluchis (over 1%) and Brahuis (over 1%). In the north, Tajiks predominate (from 18 to 27%, mainly in the provinces of Herat, Bamiyan, Samangan, Baghlan, Takhar, Badakhshan, Panjshir, Parwan, Kabul), Hazaras (from 8 to 19%, mainly in the provinces of Badghis, Ghor, Daykundi, Uruzgan, Ghazni, Bamiyan, Baghlan), as well as firuzkuhi (4%, in mostly provinces Ghor, south of Badghis province and east of Herat province), Uzbeks (6 to 9%, mainly Faryab, Jawzjan, Sari-Pul, Balkh, Samangan, Kunduz, Baghlan, northern Takhar provinces), Turkmens (2.5%, mainly the north of the province of Faryab, Jawzjan, Balkh). In the west live the taimen (2%, west of the provinces of Farah and Herat) and the Dzhemshid (north of the province of Herat), in the northeast - Pamir peoples(east of Badakhshan province) and Nuristanis(Nuristan province). Persians (3%) and others also live there.

A characteristic feature of the population of A. is its young composition (average age 18.4 years); St. 41.5% – youth under 15 years of age inclusive, persons over 65 years of age – 2.6%. In 2015, the population growth of A. was estimated to be 2.32%. The birth rate is 38.6, the death rate is 13.9 per 1000 inhabitants. With a high fertility rate (5.33 children per woman), infant mortality is high (115.08 per 1000 live births). The average life expectancy of the population is 50.9 years (men - 49.5, women - 52.3 years). There are 105 women for every 100 men. The average population density is 42.0 people/km 2 . The most densely populated are the east (971.8 people/km2 in the Kabul vilayat) and the north of the country (wilayats adjacent to the Pyanj River), the least deserted is the southwest (4.0 people/km2 in the Nimruz vilayat). The cities are inhabited by approx. 28% of the population. The mass migration of rural residents to cities began in the 1960s. in connection with the construction of new roads and accelerated industrial development. Largest cities (thousand people, 2012–13): Kabul 3289, Kandahar 491.2, Herat 436.4, Mazar-i-Sharif 368.1. Afghan conflict 1979–89 and the civil war led to significant migrations both abroad (about 1/3 of the population left the country) and within Armenia (the population of the capital more than doubled between 1985 and 1995). The largest number of refugees settled in Iran and Pakistan (4–6 million people; after partial return, more than 2 million people remained). Economically active population 8.0 million people. (2013). Employment structure (%, 2008–09): agriculture 78.6, service sector 15.7, industry and construction 5.7. Official unemployment rate is 35% (2008). 36% of the population lives below the poverty line (2008–09).

Religion

The vast majority of residents are Muslims; of which approx. 80% – Sunni, approx. 19% are Shiites (2014 estimate). Shiism is widespread mainly among Hazaras and Tajiks; the majority of Afghan Shiites are Imami. Punjabis and Sindhis living in Kabul and Kandahar profess Sikhism and Hinduism. Christians, including Catholics and representatives of the Armenian Apostolic Church, Judaists, Zoroastrians (Parsis) and Bahais are small in number.

In pre-Christian times, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism were practiced in Africa. On the territory of A. (in Bamiyan) there were statues of Buddha, which were a Buddhist shrine included in the list World Heritage; were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. Christian communities arose in the 3rd and 4th centuries. in the western part of modern Africa, which was part of the Sassanid state. Nestorianism and Monophysitism became widespread. In the 7th–10th centuries. As a result of the Arab conquests, the majority of the population of Africa converted to Islam, but Christianity remained on the territory of the state until the 2nd half. 14th century In the 20th century Small communities of Catholics and Protestants (Anglicans, Evangelical Christians, Seventh-day Adventists) reappeared in Africa. On the territory of Azerbaijan there are large Muslim pilgrimage centers (including in Mazar-i-Sharif one of the supposed burial places Ali ibn Abi Talib).

The current constitution of A. (2004) declares Islam the state religion, and at the same time guarantees followers of other religions the right to perform their rituals within the framework established by law.

Historical sketch

Afghanistan in antiquity and the Middle Ages

According to archaeological data, the northern part of the territory of modern Africa was inhabited by humans in the Paleolithic (Kara-Kamar cave, ca. 40–30 thousand years BC), the southern. part - in the Bronze Age (4th–2nd millennium BC). In the 1st half. 1st millennium BC e. oasis agriculture develops.

In the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. On the territory of modern Africa, state formations arose, the most significant of which was Bactria. In the 6th century. BC e. these lands became part of Achaemenid states. In the 4th century. BC e. armies invaded A. from Persia Alexander the Great. After the collapse of his empire, on the territory of modern A. formed Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, captured to con. 1st century BC e. nomadic Kushans (Yuezhi), who created their own powerful state centered in the north of Africa. During the era of the Great Kushans (late 1st–4th centuries AD, see Kushan kingdom) urban culture and crafts, and international trade developed. Buddhism was proclaimed the state religion. The conquest of part of the territory of Africa by the Hephthalites and the undermining of the power of the Kushans by the Sassanids led to political fragmentation. Some local rulers obeyed Turkic Khaganate, the other part is the Sassanids. This period was accompanied by the decline of cities and the increasing influence of dynasties of local landowners.

In the 7th–8th centuries. b. Part of the territory of Azerbaijan was invaded by the Arabs who brought Islam. Within the Caliphate, this territory was ruled by dynasties of governors - Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids (from 900). Replaced by the Arabs in the 10th century. Central Asian Turks arrived. One of their leaders, Sultan Mahmud, created in the 11th century. Ghaznavid Empire, which included Iran, south Wed. Asia and the northwestern part of Hindustan. The Ghazni-Kandahar Plateau, as well as the Suleiman Mountains and the Quetta-Pishinsky Highlands became the main territories for the formation of the Afghan people. Bactrians, Sakas and Hephthalites also participated in Afghan ethnogenesis, and later Indian, Tajik and, possibly, Turkic elements. The first mentions of Afghans (Abgan, Afghan) are found in sources from the 3rd–6th centuries.

In the 13th century The economic and cultural development of the Afghan lands was stopped by the invasion of the hordes of Genghis Khan, which also led to the formation in the 14th–15th centuries. new nationality - the Hazaras. The negative consequences of Mongol expansion were not completely overcome in Afghanistan and during the Timurid era (late 14th – early 16th centuries), although the collapse of Timur’s empire after his death (1405) did not prevent his successors Shahrukh and Sultan Hussein Bayqara from creating a prosperous state in Khorasan with its capital in Herat. The revitalization of the economic and cultural life of western Africa under the Timurids attracted people in the 16th century. attention Great Mughals and Safavids: in the 16th–17th centuries. the former held the southeast of Afghanistan as vassals, and the latter conquered the south and west of modern Afghan territories. The long struggle against foreign power (including the Roshanite movement) created the preconditions for the unification of the Afghan tribes. In the beginning. 18th century During the uprisings against the Mughals and Safavids, the independent Gilzai principality in Kandahar and the principality of the Abdali tribe in Herat arose. In the 1730s. they were conquered by Nadir Shah, but after his death (1747) his state collapsed.

Afghanistan in the middle 18 – beginning 20th centuries

In Oct. 1747 the leaders of the Pashtun tribes elected the military leader Ahmad Khan as their leader. Under the name Ahmad Shah Durrani he became the head of the first independent Afg. state - the Durrani state with its capital in Kandahar. Ahmad Shah annexed Ghazni, Kabul, Peshawar, and then Herat to his possessions. Following this, it included Khorasan, Baluchistan (as a vassal possession), Panjab (Punjab; soon lost), Kashmir and Sindh. Under him, the Durrani state became the largest state in the Middle East, but under Ahmad Shah's successors (Timur Shah and Zaman Shah), its gradual decentralization began during civil strife. In 1818, the collapse of the state led to the formation of independent possessions - Herat, Kandahar, Kabul and Peshawar principalities. Nevertheless, the experience of the Afghan tribes in the system of the state of Ahmad Shah created favorable conditions for their subsequent consolidation around the Principality of Kabul under the leadership of its emir Dost Muhammad (from 1834). The reunification of the Afghan tribes was interrupted by the British colonialists, whose borders were already approaching Afghan lands. In 1838, troops of the English East India Company, under the pretext of ensuring the security of the territories under its control, occupied Kandahar and Kabul, thereby beginning the first of Anglo-Afghan wars . A powerful popular movement in 1841–42 led to the collapse of the British occupation and forced British troops to leave A. In the 1850s. Dost Muhammad continued to gather the disparate regions of Afghanistan: he subjugated the northern regions (Afghan Turkestan) to his power, annexed Kandahar (1855) and Herat (1863). However, he was forced to simultaneously confirm the rights of the English East India Company to Peshawar and other Afghan regions captured earlier (see. Anglo-Afghan treaties and agreements 1855, 1879, 1893, 1905).

Under Dost Muhammad's successor, Sher Ali Khan (reigned 1863–66, 1868–79), the left bank of the Amu Darya and Badakhshan were annexed to the Afghan state. Sher Ali Khan strengthened the central government, increased the army, and carried out a number of administrative, military and financial reforms. Its transformations were interrupted by the 2nd Anglo-Afghan War, started by Great Britain in 1878 in conditions of intense rivalry with Russia in Central Asia. The stubborn resistance of the Afghan tribes forced British politicians to abandon plans to extend their influence to Afghanistan. Despite the conclusion of the Gandamak Treaty of 1879, which effectively deprived Afghanistan of its independence, British control over the country remained fragile.

In 1880, the British were forced to recognize the grandson of Dost Muhammad as the Emir of Afghanistan. Abdurrahman. Arriving in Afghanistan from Russia, where he was in exile, he was able to gather a tribal militia and extend his power to Kandahar and Herat. After the defeat of the British troops by the ruler of Herat, Muhammad Ayub Khan, at Maiwand (1880), they left the country (1881). However, in 1893, Emir Abdurrahman was forced to agree to the annexation of the territories of the eastern Pashtun tribes, previously separated from Azerbaijan, into the English possessions, and to recognize the so-called. Durand Line as the border between Afghanistan and British India.

During the years of his reign (1880–1901), Emir Abdurrahman consistently pursued a policy of consolidating Afghan lands and strengthening central power throughout the country. He managed to suppress the uprisings of Pashtun tribes and Hazaras, occupied Kafiristan - a semi-independent region in the east of Afghanistan - and contributed to the Islamization of the local population (kafirs), recreated the regular Afghan army, streamlined taxation and the administrative apparatus, and improved the communications system. Under Abdurrahman, the territory of Armenia was demarcated from the possessions of Russia and Great Britain. Despite the “closing” of Azerbaijan to the outside world, carried out both by Abdurrahman and the British, cities grew in Azerbaijan, the specialization of agriculture increased, the internal market developed, and signs of Europeanization of public life appeared.

During the reign of Abdurrahman's successor, Emir Habibullah (1901–19), A. continued to remain in foreign policy isolation. At the same time, the country’s sovereignty was infringed by the agreement between Great Britain and Russia (1907) on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Africa, and Tibet. In the beginning. 20th century the creation of secular educational institutions of the European model intensified socio-political thought. During these years, an opposition movement of Young Afghans appeared in Afghanistan, demanding true independence, the adoption of a constitution and reforms. Their inspirer and ideological leader was the educator and publicist Mahmud Beg Tarzi.

During the First World War, despite pressure from Germany and its allies, A. strictly adhered to the policy of neutrality.

Afghanistan in the 1920s–60s.

After the end of the First World War, the position of national-patriotic circles strengthened in Armenia. Emir's reign Amanullah Khan(1919–29) was marked by the restoration of the independence of Afghanistan. During the 3rd Anglo-Afghan War, the British government recognized the sovereignty of the emir over the territory of Afghanistan (see. Anglo-Afghan treaties 1919, 1921). Having established relations with a number of states, including Great Britain and Soviet Russia (see. Soviet-Afghan treaties and agreements), Amanullah Khan carried out a series of reforms aimed at overcoming the country's backwardness. In 1923, the first constitution of Armenia was proclaimed, which established civil rights and freedoms. Amanullah's economic reforms (transfer of taxes into cash, free purchase and sale of state lands, expansion of secular education) were aimed at encouraging national entrepreneurship and strengthening the market principle and the role of commodity-money relations in the economic life of Amanullah. The transformations of the Amanullah government caused dissatisfaction among the conservative layers of the Afghan society - tribal khans and Muslim leaders. In con. 1928 – beginning 1929 conservative opposition during anti-government special The uprising achieved the abdication of Amanullah and brought to power the emir Bachai Sakao (ruled under the name Habibullah), who abolished all the reforms of his predecessor. In Oct. 1929 The former minister of war in the government of Amanullah, hero of the war for independence, Muhammad Nadir, came to power. He took the name Nadir Shah , the title of king and founded a new dynasty. The constitution proclaimed under him (1931) consolidated the position of the Muslim clergy in the sphere of education and law and ensured the participation of the tribal nobility in state affairs. In the 1930s Measures were taken to encourage industry and trade: merchant associations (shirkets) were created, and factory production arose. After the assassination of Nadir Shah (11/8/1933), his son Muhammad was elevated to the throne Zahir Shah However, real power was seized by his relatives, led by Nadir Shah's brother, Prime Minister Muhammad Hashim Khan, who established a despotic regime in Azerbaijan.

Before World War II, the influence of Germany and Italy increased in Africa, striving to involve the country in their military plans. The activation of Nazi agents, operating in Austria under the guise of advisers and consultants, created a threat to Soviet and British interests in the region. In connection with the demands of the governments of the USSR and Great Britain (October 1941), the Afghan leadership stopped the activities of German agents. In World War II, A. traditionally adhered to a policy of neutrality.

During the war years, Armenia experienced serious economic difficulties due to the disruption of world economic ties. The deteriorating economic situation caused discontent among the Pashtun tribes, who launched an anti-government uprising. Under these conditions, Prime Minister Hashim Khan resigned in 1946, and the government was headed by another uncle of the king, Mahmud Shah. The new cabinet proclaimed a course towards the liberalization of social and political life. Under him, free parliamentary elections were held (acted from 1949–52).

In con. 1940s - early 1950s In Armenia, opposition groups emerged: “Vish Zalmiyan” (“Awakened Youth”), “Vatan” (“Motherland”) and “Nida-ye Khalq” (“Voice of the People”), which demanded the democratization of the political system and the implementation of socio-economic reforms. The leading role in them was played by small and medium-sized entrepreneurs and the Afghan intelligentsia. The conservative forces of Afghan society (tribal leaders, religious leaders) in the situation of Afghan-Pakistani contradictions (since 1947) chose to support the king’s cousin, General L. Muhammad Daoud, who led the government since 1953.

The government of M. Daoud (1953–63) proclaimed the policy of a “guided economy” in Africa. Throughout the 1950s and 60s. within its framework, state organizations in the field of foreign trade were established, state control was established over industrial enterprises and banks, economic development planning was introduced, and conditions were created for the concentration and centralization of national capital. A significant role in the economic life of A. in the 1950s–1960s. played a role in the foreign policy of the government of M. Daoud, who, after unsuccessful attempts to obtain military and economic assistance from the United States, turned to the USSR. Soviet-Afghan agreements on economic (1955) and cultural (1960) cooperation made the USSR Afghanistan’s leading partner in the outside world. However, during the Cold War, the Afghan leadership pursued a policy of non-alignment with military-political blocs and pushed the United States and Western European countries towards economic competition with Soviet influence in Afghanistan.

M. Daoud carried out a number of reforms in the public sphere in Azerbaijan, in particular, he abolished the compulsory wearing of a veil by women. However, the activities of the opposition were nullified by force and were regularly suppressed. In 1963 M. Daoud was dismissed. In 1964, a new constitution was adopted in Armenia. On its basis, a gradual liberalization of social and political life took place (“democratic experiment”): a private press was published, political parties functioned, and elections were held (1965, 1969). In 1965 it was created People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan(PDPA), which proclaimed a course towards building socialism. In 1967, it split into two factions - radical (Khalq) and liberal (Parcham).

Con. 1960s was marked by an aggravation of Azerbaijan's internal political problems and an increasingly clear ideological polarization - from Islamic fundamentalism to extreme leftist views. The problem of political self-determination of the eastern Pashtun tribes living south and southeast of "Durand Lines" and found themselves within Pakistan after the partition of British India (1947). The Afghan-Pakistani conflicts, the instability of governments, and the authoritarian political steps of the king led to the beginning. 1970s to a general political crisis, aggravated by the drought of 1971–72. Under these conditions, a coup d'etat led by former Prime Minister M. Daoud took place in Afghanistan (July 17, 1973). The monarchy was abolished and the country declared a republic.

Afghanistan under Republican regimes (1973–92)

M. Daoud's coup was supported by military and civil activists of the PDPA (Parcham faction). A number of its supporters took part in the creation of republican government bodies. However, throughout the 1970s. M. Daoud's leadership style became more and more conservative and authoritarian. The regime's gradual abandonment of socialist ideas and the removal of left-wing politicians from government positions were enshrined in the new constitution (adopted in February 1977), which consolidated the almost unlimited power of the president. A noticeable element of Armenia's foreign policy was its distance from the USSR. M. Daud intensified negotiations with Pakistan on the Pashtun problem, and also expanded and strengthened Pakistan’s relations with Iran and the Persian Gulf countries, which promised large financial assistance to the Afghan government.

In 1977, the forces of the Afghan opposition - Khalq and Parcham - with the assistance of the USSR, united against the regime of M. Daoud. After a year of political murders, anti-government demonstrations and arrests of the opposition, left-wing army officers brought the PDPA to power on April 27, 1978, led by its leader N. M. Taraki (see. April Revolution 1978). The country was proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). The new regime was actively supported by the Soviet leadership, which soon concluded a Treaty of Friendship, Good Neighborhood and Cooperation with A. (December 5, 1978). In 1978–79, the PDPA regime carried out a series of radical socio-economic reforms that undermined the traditional economic foundations of the Afghans, which caused discontent among large sections of the population. The situation in the country was soon aggravated by a new split in the PDPA. The radical extremist faction of the PDPA (“Khalq”), led by H. Amin, relying on military circles, actually removed the liberal wing of the party, “Parcham,” led by B. Karmal, from power. The policy of mass purges and repressions in the PDPA and in the country as a whole was consistently carried out after the appointment of Kh. Amin to the post of head of government (March 1979). Overthrow and murder of N. M. Taraki (Sept. 1979 – Oct. 1979) allowed H. Amin to assume key powers in the party and government of Afghanistan. In the summer and autumn of 1979, armed resistance to the PDPA regime took the form of spontaneous mass protests both in Kabul and in remote provinces of the country.

Under these conditions, the USSR carried out an armed invasion of Afghanistan (December 25, 1979), the purpose of which was declared to be “assisting the Afghan people in repelling external armed aggression” (see. Afghan conflict 1979–1989). The regime of H. Amin was liquidated (December 27, 1979). B. Karmal was put in power, combining the posts of head of government and secretary general of the PDPA.

In the 1st half. 1980s Attempts by the government of B. Karmal to build “Soviet-style socialism” in Azerbaijan were unsuccessful. This policy was opposed by a broad Islamic opposition, which received support not only b. including the population, but also Western countries led by the United States and its allies in the region. Resistance to the PDPA regime took the form of a large-scale civil war. More than 5 million refugees left the country.

With the arrival of the former head of the special services A. Najibullah to the post of Secretary General of the PDPA (May 1986), the development of measures for national reconciliation and the liberalization of the socio-political and economic life of the country began. Najibullah was elected president of the Republic of Afghanistan, proclaimed according to the new constitution (1987). However, the PDPA leader's calls for compromise did not meet with a positive response from the resistance leaders, and his reforms were unable to lead the country out of the military-political deadlock. The strengthening of the military-technical potential of the armed opposition, as well as diplomatic pressure from Western countries and the democratization processes taking place in the USSR, confronted the Soviet and Afghan leadership with the need for negotiations with opponents of the regime. Throughout the 1980s. such negotiations were conducted under the auspices of the UN between the foreign ministers of Azerbaijan and Pakistan. In con. 1980s A formula for an Afghan settlement was developed - the withdrawal of Soviet troops in exchange for stopping the supply of weapons to the Mujahideen. The settlement agreement was signed on April 14, 1988, and the withdrawal of Soviet troops was completed on February 15, 1989. In the beginning. 1990s The country's leadership made significant efforts to reach a compromise with the interim government of the Mujahideen operating in Pakistan. On January 1, 1992, the USSR and the USA stopped supplying weapons to both sides, and in April. In 1992, opposition forces occupied Kabul without a fight. The country was declared the Islamic State of Afghanistan. Power passed into the hands of the Mujahideen leaders. S. Mojaddidi became president, who was replaced in the same year by B. Rabbani.

Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan

Soon a fierce armed struggle for power unfolded in Azerbaijan between the leaders of the Mujahideen. In conditions where the government controlled only the capital region, warlords divided power in the provinces. In the 1990s. The political and administrative disintegration of Armenia intensified. In a number of regions, pockets of regional and even local power arose. Arbitrariness, violence, banditry, and interethnic conflicts have become a mass phenomenon. The country's economy found itself in a state of chaos and stagnation.

All R. 1990s The Taliban movement (young Islamic radicals who received training in a Pakistani madrasah) appeared on the political arena of Azerbaijan. In 1994, the Taliban captured Kandahar, and in 1996, Kabul, declaring the territory they occupied as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, led by Mullah Omar. They were opposed by the Northern Alliance (a coalition of various ethnic forces led by Ahmad Shah Massoud). The Taliban leaders established a strict theocratic regime in the territories they controlled, imposing restrictions on the population in socio-political life within the framework of the “pure Islam” they preached. Massive violations of human rights, promotion of drug trafficking, and genocide of national minorities have become common political practices of the Taliban regime. Since 1996, the territory of A. has been used by Osama bin Laden and his organization Al Qaeda as a basis for preparing violent actions against the “infidels.” In con. 1990s Azerbaijan was actually turned into a hotbed of international terrorist activity.

The assassination of the leader of the anti-Taliban forces, Ahmad Shah Massoud (9/9/2001) and the terrorist attacks in the United States (11/9/2001), of which W. bin Laden was accused of organizing, caused a sharp anti-Afghan reaction from Western states. As a result of the military operation carried out in the end. In 2001, by the forces of the anti-terrorist coalition led by the United States, the Taliban regime in Afghanistan was eliminated. On Dec. 2001, at a conference of the leading political forces of A. in Bonn, the Provisional Administration of A. was formed, headed by Hamid Karzai, which declared the main goal of restoring peace in the country and creating a democratic society. In June 2002, at a meeting of the Emergency Loyal Jirga, the Transitional Government of Azerbaijan was formed, and H. Karzai was elected head of state and cabinet of ministers. In Jan. In 2004, a new constitution was adopted, proclaiming civil rights and freedoms. In Oct. 2004 H. Karzai was elected president of Azerbaijan. More than 3 million refugees have returned to the country, but the process of reconstruction of A. is extremely slow. The remnants of the Taliban units are waging an armed struggle against the government of Hamid Karzai and the forces of the international anti-terrorist coalition. The territory of A. is actively used for the production of narcotic drugs with their subsequent export abroad. Power in the provinces actually belongs to mujahideen field commanders, who are only nominally subordinate to the central government.

Due to escalating tensions, the presidential elections scheduled for June 2004 were postponed. In March, the command of the American contingent conducted a major anti-terrorist operation with the participation of units of the Afghan army in areas bordering on Pakistan, which at the same time acted independently. These actions remained ineffective, while in the north and west of Africa the redistribution of spheres of influence continued: in Herat, clashes broke out between government troops and the police of Governor Ismail Khan; The militia of General A.R. Dostum captured the province of Faryab and clashed with the troops of the governor of the province of Balkh A.M. Nur. In August, Ismail Khan successfully resisted regular formations sent from Kabul in Shindand. In October, in the presidential elections, H. Karzai received 55.4% of the vote and took office as president in December. His government set the task of limiting the arbitrariness of regional military leaders, building an effective national security system and continuing reconstruction.

The most important step towards the construction of new armed forces was the implementation of the program of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) of former Mujahideen, aimed at the same time at strengthening the central government on the ground. At its first stage, by July 2005, over 250 units were disbanded, approx. 63 thousand fighters, over 30 thousand units of heavy and light weapons were delivered to warehouses. However, more than 1,000 armed gangs continued to operate in the country (according to various estimates, from 60 to 100 thousand participants). In June 2005, a decree was promulgated on the start of the 2nd stage of the program (“Disarmament of illegal armed groups”), which was expected to be completed within a year. By September, the strength of the Afghan National Army (ANA), which was staffed on a voluntary basis and consisted of 5 regional commands and several corps, including individual brigades and battalions, reached 30 thousand people. By the end of the year, approx. 20 thousand so-called military personnel international coalition forces.

Repeatedly postponed parliamentary elections took place in September 2005 and brought predominance to independents and oppositionists (conservatives, Islamists and traditionalists): the largest factions formed the New A party. (Yu. Kanuni), “Islamic Society of A.” (B. Rabbani, Ismail Khan and A. M. Nur), “National Movement of A.” (A.V. Masud), “National Islamic Movement of A.” (A.R. Dostum), “Islamic Unity Party of the People of A.” (M. Mohakkek). A close ally of Karzai, S. Mojaddidi, was elected chairman of the upper house in December, and oppositionist Y. Kanuni, who defeated the radical Islamist A. R. Sayyaf in the elections, was elected chairman of the lower house.

The remnants of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda continued their anti-government attacks from Pakistan with weapons in their hands. In the provinces, field commanders held positions, often not subordinate to Kabul. Due to economic instability, drug production and trafficking increased, and political violence and ethnic strife continued. The drug business has merged with crime in the person of individual representatives of local authorities and militants. The task of reunifying the country remained no less difficult, given the many religious contradictions that worsened during the war. The problem of refugees returning from abroad stood apart.

The inability of the Karzai cabinet to cope with these problems prompted the world community to return to the issue of increasing aid to Azerbaijan and taking a more active role in its reconstruction. At a conference in London (January - February 2006), 70 countries approved the allocation of $10.5 billion for the “Afghan Package” - a 5-year development plan (disarmament of all illegal groups and completion of the construction of a national army; reduction of the area of ​​mined areas by 70 %; creation of an effective judicial system; strengthening the fight against drug trafficking and corruption; expanding the structure of education; solving social issues and fighting poverty; modernizing transport and energy infrastructure).

In the 2014 presidential elections, the favorites among 8 candidates were A. Abdullah, ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs (from the National Coalition), and A. Ghani Ahmadzai, ex-Minister of Finance (non-party), who received 45 in the 1st round (April 2014), respectively % and 31%. In June, the 2nd round took place, after which a political crisis erupted, as Abdullah demanded a recount of votes, which gave rise to disagreements over which body would carry out this procedure: Ghani Ahmadzai, who supported the idea of ​​centralized power, demanded the involvement of the Central Election Commission A., Abdullah , who defended the division of powers between the president and the prime minister, advocated the participation of international representatives. As a result of the mediation of ex-President Karzai and US Secretary of State John Kerry and under the auspices of the UN, a compromise was reached; in August the parties signed a Declaration on the joint formation of a government of national unity. According to the results announced in September, A. Ghani Ahmadzai, who became president, won with 56.4% of the votes; A. Abdullah, who received 43.5% of the votes, took the position of Chairman of the Executive Council.

Since January 2015, after the withdrawal of most of the international coalition forces from Afghanistan, the terrorist activities of the Taliban and the military confrontation between its supporters and government forces have intensified in the country.

Farm

Australia is one of the poorest countries in the world and is heavily dependent on foreign aid and transit trade. The hostilities, which have not stopped since 1979, have almost completely destroyed the economy; The consequences of the drought of 1998–2002 are also affecting. The only thriving industry during the years of war and instability was the production of opium poppy (according to some estimates, it provides up to 1/3 of GDP). In Jan. 2002, a conference of donor countries on the restoration of Afghanistan was held in Tokyo (representatives of 61 countries, including Russia, the USA and EU countries, as well as the UN, the World Bank, the IMF, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and a number of other organizations participated), at which a program was developed assistance ($4.5 billion before 2006). As a result, some positive trends have emerged in the development of the economy, especially the agricultural sector. Two fundamentals have been set for the coming years. objectives: to encourage peasants to abandon the cultivation of opium poppy and to explore for oil and natural gas deposits in the northern regions of the country.

GDP is $20 billion ($700 per capita; 2003). 60% of GDP is created in agriculture, 20% in industry, 20% in the service sector. Azerbaijan's external debt exceeds 8.5 billion dollars (2004), a significant part of it falls on Russia.

Industry

Since 1967, the large gas field Khoja-Gugerdag has been developed, since 1982 - the Dzharkuduk field; both are in the north of the country (near the city of Shibergan). In the 1980s gas was mainly exported to the USSR, in the beginning. 21st century entirely consumed domestically. Coal (Darai-Suf deposit), oil (Angot), rock salt (near the city of Talukan), lapis lazuli (Sari-Sang), and building materials are also mined (Table 2).

Table 2. Extraction of main types of mineral raw materials

The basis of Azerbaijan's energy sector is hydropower: hydroelectric power plants produce 84% of all electricity, thermal power plants - 16% (2002). The most significant hydroelectric power stations were built on the river. Kabul (Naglu and Surobai) and on the river. Helmand (Kajakai). The largest thermal power plant (powered by natural gas) operates in Mazar-i-Sharif.

The creation of a manufacturing industry began in the 1930s: a cotton factory was built in Puli-Khumri, a sugar factory in Baghlan, and a wool weaving factory in Kandahar. In the five-year plans for economic development (since 1956), the emphasis was placed primarily on the development of the public sector; a bakery plant, a house-building plant, an asphalt concrete and auto repair plant in Kabul, cement plants in Jabal-us-Siraj and Puli-Khumri, a nitrogen fertilizer plant in Mazar-i-Sharif, etc. were put into operation. 1960s - early 1970s New enterprises in the food, textile and pharmaceutical industries began to operate. During the war years, most industrial enterprises were destroyed or stopped working. In the beginning. 21st century Enterprises for the production of fabrics (Kabul, Kandahar, Mazar-i-Sharif), soap and medicines (Kabul), furniture, shoes, and minerals continue to operate. fertilizers (Mazar-i-Sharif) and cement (Gori, Jabal-us-Siraj) (Table 3). Hand-made carpet production is developed (mainly in the north of the country).

Table 3. Production of the most important types of industrial products

Agriculture

The economy of Armenia is traditionally based on agriculture, in which small peasant farms predominate. Total agricultural area land, including pastures, is approx. 62% of the country's territory, the share of arable land is 16%. Arable lands are predominantly occupied by grain crops, which are grown at altitudes of up to 2700 m. Harvesting (2003; thousand tons) of wheat - 2686, barley - 345, corn - 298. Rice is grown on the plains and in the foothills (388 thousand tons in 2003) . The most fertile areas of land are located mosaically: in the north - in the valleys of the tributaries of the Amu Darya, in the east - in the valleys of the Kabul, Logar, Sarobi and Lagman rivers, in the central part - in the Central Afghan Mountains, in the south - in the Helmand vilayat, in the west - in the Herat vilayat . Sugar beets, cotton, oilseeds and sugar cane are also grown. Gardening (apricots, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, pomegranates, citrus fruits), viticulture, and melon growing are developed; almonds and walnuts are grown. In the 1980s About half of the arable land was irrigated (there were underground drainage galleries with wells, as well as a system of ditches fed from rivers and underground springs). A significant part of the irrigation structures was damaged during the hostilities, and cultivation of the fields became dangerous due to mines. In the 1980s–90s. The opium poppy became the leading cash crop, and Africa became the world's main supplier of opium (1,670 tons in 1999, estimate).

Livestock farming, mainly the breeding of sheep (8.8 million heads, including the Karakul breed, in the north of the country) and goats (6 million heads; 2003), is mainly carried out by nomadic tribes. In winter, the herds graze on the plains, in the summer - on mountain pastures (at an altitude of 1000 to 3500 m). Cattle (zebu and buffalo 2600), donkeys 920, camels 290, horses 104 are also bred (thousand heads; 2003).

Transport and communications

There are practically no railways - a 9.6 km long line has been laid from Kushka (Turkmenistan) to Torgundi and 15 km from Termez (Uzbekistan) to Hairatan (it is planned to extend it to Mazar-i-Sharif). The length of roads is 21 thousand km, including 2.8 thousand km with hard surface (1999). During the period of hostilities, the condition of the roads deteriorated, and practically no repairs were carried out. The use of horse-drawn transport (camels, horses, donkeys) is common. Of particular importance is the ring road Kabul - Kandahar - Herat - Maymene - Mazar-i-Sharif - Khulm - Kabul, connecting the most important cities of the country. The only navigable river is the Amu Darya. The main river ports are Hairatan and Sherkhan. Two oil pipelines have been laid in Azerbaijan: from Turkmenistan to Shindand and from Uzbekistan to Bagram (both are inactive). The length of gas pipelines is 387 km. 10 airfields with paved runways, international airport in Kabul, 5 airfields for helicopters (2004).

External economic relations

The total value of legal exports of A. is $98 million, imports exceeded $1 billion (2002). The main export items are fruits, nuts, carpets, wool, cotton, tanned and untanned animal skins, precious and semi-precious stones. The main countries that purchase goods from Africa: Pakistan (28.6%), India (27.6%), Finland (6.1%), Belgium (5.1%), Germany (5.1%), Russia (4.1%) and the USA (4.1%). Capital goods, food products, textiles, petroleum products, etc. are imported, mainly. from Pakistan (24.3%), South Korea (14%), Japan (9.1%), USA (8.7%), Germany (5.7%) and Kenya (5.6%).

Foreign tourism has been actively developing since the end. 1960s before the Afghan conflict of 1979–89 (in 1978, more than 100 thousand foreign tourists visited Afghanistan).

Healthcare

Total healthcare expenditure is 8.2% of GDP (2014). There are 26 doctors per 100 thousand inhabitants (2014), 18 paramedical personnel (by 2010). The incidence of diphtheria was 854 cases, measles – 2486, whooping cough – 1439.

Sport

Since ancient times, equestrian sports, archery, fencing with sticks, stone pushing, etc. have been cultivated and popular in the country. The most developed and popular sports are: wrestling, athletics, football, field hockey.

The National Olympic Committee was created in 1935 and recognized by the IOC in 1936. Athletes made their debut at the Olympic Games in Berlin (1936); subsequently participated in all Olympic Games (with the exception of 1952, 1976, 1984, 1992, 2000). Two bronze Olympic medals (as of January 1, 2016) were won by R. Niklay in taekwondo competitions in Beijing (2008, weight category up to 58 kg) and London (2012, up to 68 kg). Athletes of A. participated in 13 Asian Games; (as of January 1, 2016) 5 silver and 6 bronze medals were won. The most popular sports: football, field hockey, volleyball, basketball, boxing, chess, national wrestling - pakhlavani. Since 1996, the national chess team of Armenia has been participating in the World Chess Olympiads.

Education

Azerbaijan's education system was completely destroyed during the years of civil war and the rule of the Taliban. In 2002, an emergency plan for the restoration of the education system “Back to School” was prepared, designed for 2 years. Education is administered by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Main regulatory documents: Law on Education (2008), Law on Higher Education (2013). In 2015, a plan was developed for the development of the education system in Azerbaijan until 2020. The education system includes: 6-year primary, 6-year secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education. Training is free and separate at all levels. Initial training covers approx. 100% children, average - 46.8% (2013; data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). The literacy rate of the population over 15 years of age is 24.2% (2015). In many regions, the problem of gender equality remains unresolved. According to the Ministry of Education in 2015, of the 11.5 million Afghan children attending school, 4.5 million (42%) were girls.

Secondary vocational education (2–5 years of study) is carried out on the basis of junior high school. Post-secondary vocational education programs (grades 13–14) are offered in vocational colleges, teacher training colleges, and Islamic schools. The qualifications they provide are generally intended for access to the labor market. The higher education system operates: Kabul University (founded in 1932, closed in the 1990s; resumed classes in 2002); state universities: medical (1932), polytechnic (1951, modern status since 1963), pedagogical named after Burhanuddin Rabbani (history dates back to 1964, modern status since 2002), American (2006), national defense named after Marshal Fahim (2005, modern name and status since 2014) – all in Kabul; Nangarhar University (Jalalabad city, founded in 1963, initially trained medical personnel), Balkh, Herat (1988), Kandahar (1990) universities; Agricultural Science and Technology University (2014, Kandahar Province), as well as universities in Bamyan, Badakhshan and Khost and other provinces. There are also private universities: Kardan (2003), Bakhtar (2005), Karwan (2008), RANA (2009), Salam (2009), etc. Libraries: Ministry of Education (1920), Department of Press and Information (1931) public - in Kabul (1920) and Herat, etc. National Archives of A. (1890). Kabul National Museum (dates back to 1919; closed in the mid-1990s - 2001; reopened in 2004), Herat National Museum (1925), Museum of Islamic Art in Ghazni (1966; restored 2004- 07) and others. National Gallery of Art (2003).

mass media

The media system in Azerbaijan, practically destroyed during the reign of the Taliban, has been undergoing a restoration process since 2001. The country has (2004) state television, radio broadcasting and a news agency. In addition, there are 3 independent radio broadcasters (including the most influential Radio Kabul), a private television company and a private news agency, Afghan Islamic Press. ). More than 260 newspapers and other periodicals are published.

Literature

Armenian literature develops in two languages ​​- Pashto and Dari. Literature in Pashto also exists in parts of Pakistan; literature in Dari is the heir to the Persian classical literary tradition (see Iran, section Literature). Among the earliest surviving monuments of Pashtun literature is the “Cadastral Book” of Sheikh Mali (15th century). By the 16th century creativity applies Bayazid Ansari, founder of the Roshanite sect. The heyday of classical literature in Pashto occurred in the 17th–18th centuries, when 4 main poetic schools emerged: “Roshani” (which called for a struggle against the conquerors and was colored by the ideology of Sufism), Khushkhal Khan Khattak(professed national liberation ideas and used secular forms of poetry), Abdurrahman Mohmand(who developed Sufi themes) and Abdulhamida Mohmanda(notable for the complexity of artistic images and poetic speech).

In the 19th century In connection with the political consolidation of the peoples of Azerbaijan, bilingual literature of Azerbaijan is being formed in Dari and Pashto (the works of panegyric poets Kabuli Vasiri, Tarshizi Shahab, A. Faiz Muhammad; epic poets A. Ghulam Muhammad, H. Kashmiri, emir Abdurrahman, poetess A. Durrani, poets R. Badakhshi, Y. Mukhlis). In the beginning. 20th century Modern Armenian literature is emerging, associated with educational trends (Mahmud-bek Tarzi, G. M. Afgan, Davi Abdulhadi, M. Salih). In 1936, Pashto was declared the second official language along with Dari. In 1937, the Afghan Academy of Language and Literature was created. New prose genres are being mastered, in particular the story (works by S. M. Alamshahi, Miraminuddin Ansari, G. M. Zhvanday - in Dari; B. Kushkaki and K. M. Rafik - in Pashto).

In literature A. 2nd half. 20th century social issues prevailed (poetry Ulfata Gul-Pachi and A. Benawa, essays by K. Khadim and S. Rishtin, fiction by N. M. Taraki, Muhammaddin Zhvak, Abdullah Bakhtani). Adherence to traditional motifs is maintained by Abdulhak Betab, H. Khalili (in Dari), J. G. Jeilani, S. Majrukh, M. S. Psarlai (in Pashto); modern forms are mastered by S. Laik (in the Pashto and Dari languages), Sh. Barik (in the Dari language). In modern prose, new directions are being formed: romantic (A. Pazhvak and G. G. Khaibari), and then realistic (G. H. Faal, F. A. Parvana, N. Khatir, I. Khair, R. Rahim, A. . Habib, K. Mazhari). After the PDPA regime came to power, the Union of Writers of Armenia was created (1980), and the magazine “Zhvandun” (“Life”) became its official organ. The work of prose writers A. Usman (Kuzagara), A. R. Zaryab, dates back to this time. Afghanpura Amina, A. Kargara, Z. Anzor, B. Bajaurai, Habib Kadir, I. Atayi. In poetry, the classical tradition was continued by N. Hafiz, N. Takhuri, A. Thakor, A. Khazan. V. Bakhtari, L. Nazimi, S. K. Tufani, A. Naibi, F. Farda turned to new poetic techniques and genres. Themes of social struggle and revolutionary pathos are characteristic of the poetry of D. Panjsheri.

War of the last quarter of the 20th century. led to the emigration of a significant part of Afghan writers. Prominent representatives of Pashtun literature abroad are the novelist S. Shpun, poets A. Jahani, P. M. Karavan, S. Siddiqui, M. Parvin Faiz-zada.

Architecture and fine arts

The artistic culture of the peoples of ancient and medieval Africa developed in close connection with the cultures of the peoples of Central Asia, India, and Iran. The territory of Northern Africa, as part of Bactria and Tokharistan, formed a single historical and cultural region with the southern regions of Central Asia; the territory south of the Hindu Kush was more closely connected with Hindustan. In con. 4th – 3rd millennium BC e. in Southern Africa, early agricultural settlements (Mundigak) arose with adobe buildings, painted ceramics, and clay figurines of animals and women—goddesses of fertility; from the 2nd millennium BC e. with the growth of these settlements, defensive walls and monumental structures were erected (a building with closed semi-columns - “corrugations” on the facade in Mundigak).

In the oases of Northern Africa in the 2nd millennium BC. e. the settlements were also surrounded by walls and included monumental buildings (“round temple” and “palace” in Dashly-3), decorated with pilasters, in some rooms - alabaster mosaics with floral patterns; In settlements and burial grounds, copper and bronze seals with geometric motifs, less often with incised images of a winged goddess and animals, metal pins with sculpted tops in the form of proto (the front part of the figure) of rams and bull heads with a human face, etc. were discovered. In terms of style, the art of A. 4 – 2nd millennium BC e. is included in the range of artistic cultures of the Ancient Near East, but includes elements of the Harappan culture. The Achaemenid period (6th–4th centuries BC) includes monumental structures discovered by archaeologists in the settlements of Northern Africa (the round “temple” of Kutlug-Tepe, the “summer” and “winter” palaces in Altyn-10), developing the ancient Bactrian tradition, as well as the main part of the so-called products. Amudarya treasure. During the period of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–140 BC), one of the schools of Hellenistic art developed in Northern Africa (the most significant monuments were found in Ai-Khanum). The first centuries BC. e. - first centuries AD e. rich burials of the leaders of nomadic tribes date back to Tillya-Tepe, Northern Africa, where approx. 20 thousand jewelry (gold, inserts of turquoise, carnelian, lapis lazuli, etc.), the visual and ornamental forms of which indicate the assimilation by local craftsmen of the ancient Middle Eastern, Indian, Far Eastern, steppe (see Surkhkotal, associated with the dynasty cult. Numerous preserved monuments of Buddhist religious architecture of the 1st–8th centuries and related works of monumental sculpture, painting, and ornamental decoration.Ground monasteries (near Balkh, Kunduz, in Hadda), like other buildings, were erected from adobe and pakhsa, less often from stone, had courtyards with a massive stupa and rooms with beamed or vaulted coverings, and from the 3rd to 4th centuries, domes appeared on trompe l'oeil... A cave monastery developed in Bamyan, in whose paintings and stucco decoration the influence of the art of India and Iran is noticeable.

After the Arab conquests (7th–8th centuries) and the spread of Islam, Arabic art developed in line with the artistic culture of Muslim countries. Among the outstanding monuments of medieval architecture: the domed Nu-Gumbed mosque in Balkh (10th century); palace complex Lashkari Bazar residences of the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in Busta (11th–12th centuries); the star-shaped memorial towers and palace of Masud III in Ghazni; stepped, round minaret in the village. Jam (between 1153 and 1202); Cathedral Mosque and Musalla ensemble in Herat.

In the medieval art of Azerbaijan, enriched by constant contacts with the states of Central Asia, Iran, and partly India, distinctive schools emerged. The most significant school of decorative and fine arts was formed in Herat (art metal working, carpet weaving, wood carving, etc.). From the beginning 15th century the court library-workshop (kitabhane) worked here, with which the development of Herat school miniatures, the work of K. Behzad, his most famous student Qasim Ali and other famous miniaturists, calligraphers and ornamentalists. Subtle color harmony, refined linear drawing, virtuoso calligraphy and exquisite ornamentation of the Herat manuscripts had a great influence on Iranian, Central Asian and Indian masters of handwritten books. In the beginning. 16th century The leading role in the artistic life of Azerbaijan passed to Kabul as the residence of Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty. From ser. 18th century significant construction took place in Kandahar (the 8-sided domed mausoleum of Ahmad Shah Durrani). Folk architecture in Africa, 18th–20th centuries. The type is similar to residential buildings in Central Asia and Pakistan; domed houses are common in many areas.

A new stage in the development of architecture and fine arts began with the end. 1920s, when, under the leadership of the French architect A. Godard, a project for the development of new areas of Kabul was developed. Masters from other countries, including Russian ones, took part in the development of Afghan architecture. From the end 1970s intensive construction of residential and public buildings, schools, kindergartens, and hydraulic structures was carried out. According to the general plan of 1978, a Television Center, a hospital, and a complex of buildings for the Medical Institute were built in Kabul. In some monumental buildings, 1st floor. – sir. 20th century Along with modern architectural forms and new materials (glass, concrete), traditional ones were used (Abidaya Maiwand column in Kabul with decor of blue tiles and black marble, architect Ismatullah Seraj, 1950s). In the fine arts of Azerbaijan, an important role was played by the School of Fine and Applied Arts and Crafts, founded in Kabul in 1921, headed by Abdulgafur Breshna, and the work of his students and followers - Gausuddin, Khair Muhammad, Wafa and others. In the 1950s and 60s. Afghan artists participated in international art exhibitions. After 1978, various forms of propaganda (posters, newspaper and magazine graphics) and amateur art developed intensively. Since 1989, a trend in painting associated with the revival of the traditions of Herat miniature has become popular. Floral motifs predominate in the decorative design of mosques and public buildings.

During the reign of the Taliban, a number of the most valuable monuments of art on the territory of Azerbaijan were destroyed (Bamiyan, etc.). In modern art, traditional types of crafts continue to occupy a large place (Herat glassmaking, Pashtun painted lacquerware, jewelry, etc.), and carpet weaving remains an important item of Afghan export.

Music

Musical culture in ancient times was associated with Achaemenid, Bactrian, Kushan, and Sasanian traditions. It is known to exist in the first centuries AD. e. Zoroastrian cult chants. In the Buddhist cult centers of Bamiyan and Hadde, images of musicians were preserved. Islam had a significant impact on musical culture (this was manifested, in particular, in the traditionally low social status of musicians and dancers). From the 15th century, with the movement of the center of Timurid musical culture from Samarkand to Herat, classical musical art took shape, uniting the traditions of Arabic (based on the maqam system) and Indian (based on the principle of raga) music; a theory of music oriented towards it was born (for example, A. Jami, the author of the “Treatise on Music”, lived in Herat, 2nd half of the 15th century; parts of the treatise “Dastarnama” - “The Book of the Turban” by H. Khattak, 1665) are devoted to music ). The heyday of classical music in Africa occurred in the 17th–19th centuries.

The musical culture of modern Africa, due to the ethnic, linguistic, religious and sociocultural heterogeneity of the population, is a complex phenomenon. For centuries, music developed in close interaction with Arab-Iranian, Indian, Middle Asian cultures, and until the beginning. 21st century The southern region of Azerbaijan remained close to the music of Pakistan, the western - Iran, the northern - Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Pashtuns, Balochis, Tajiks, Nuristanis, Turkmens, Pamiris, and various nomadic tribes have independent traditions. Cult music is associated with the traditions of normative Islam and Sufi brotherhoods; In the central regions of Africa, the Hazaras have specific genres associated with Shiism. Folklore is represented by work songs (performed during digging ditches, harvesting, collecting firewood in the mountains, working at the mill) and ensemble instrumental music; music of rituals - calendar, healing, wedding (the crying of the bride babulala is specific; the song performed when the bride’s hands are dyed with henna); women's home music playing; comic songs laba (“game”). Music accompanies caravan movements and performances by snake charmers. The Landyi vocal genre is widespread (known since the 8th–9th centuries, in the Pashto language, in 2 text varieties: women's love-lyrical songs bazmi and men's warlike razmi). Popular art, sarinda, archaic bow harp (so-called kafir), santoor dulcimer, chang; wind instruments - nay, tuiduk, surnay, koshnay, karnay, binbaja bagpipes; drums – doira, daf membranophones, double-sided dhol drum.

At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, with the penetration of European instruments (piano, mandolin, accordion, so-called Indian harmonica) and other elements of European musical culture into Africa, new trends emerged. Forms of musical theater began to develop, urban song styles became widespread (singers Sarahang, Y. Kosimi, Nashenas, A. Zoir, Hafizullah Khyal were popular), and various performing groups were organized: the Orchestra of National Instruments of the Kabul Radio (1946), the Variety Orchestra (1961), song and dance ensemble “Nargis”. Among the performers on traditional instruments are Muhammad Omar (rubob), Abdulmajid (tanbur), M. N. Mazari (gijak), M. Hussein (surnay). Since 1978, art festivals of the peoples of Armenia have been held, and the Union of Artists was created (with a music section, 1980). Many Afghan musicians studied in the USSR. After 1992, all types of entertainment music were banned; a number of musicians left the country (for example, the famous classical singer Mahvash emigrated to the USA). In the 2000s. The process of revival of religious and folk music began.

Movie

The first film in Afghanistan is considered to be the film “Like an Eagle” by F. M. Khaerzade (1963, jointly with India), although foreign films were shown in cinemas already since 1915. In 1968, the film studio “Afghanfilm” was founded, where they were filmed as documentaries (“Afghanistan in development", 1969, "The Secret of Happiness", 1970), and feature films ("Vremenshchiki", 1970, "Mother's Order", 1973, both directed by A. Kh. Alil; "Difficult Days" by V. Latifi, " Rabia-Balkhi" M. Nadiri, both - 1974; "Statues laugh", 1976, directed by Shafik). An attempt to modernize the Azerbaijani film industry was made after the so-called. April Revolution 1978 (“Hot Summer in Kabul” by A.I. Khamraev with the participation of Latifi; 1983, together with the Mosfilm film studio). Afghan students received their education at VGIK, and full-length feature films were created mainly in film studios of the USSR. At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries, after the overthrow of the Taliban regime (1996–2001), the support of the international creative intelligentsia contributed to the formation of Afghan film production itself (“Osama” by S. Barmak, 2002, IFF Prize in Cannes; “Earth and Ashes” by A. Rahimi , 2004). In collaboration with various countries of the East and West, films were created by Barmak (“The Opium War”, 2008), Rahimi (“The Stone of Patience”) and N. Haya (the documentary “My Afghanistan: Life in the Forbidden Zone”; both 2012), X Muruvata (“Flight without wings”, 2014), etc.

This is due to the fact that the land border with a total length of 5,529 km has economically developed neighbors: Pakistan - 2,430 km, Tajikistan - 1,206 km, Turkmenistan - 744 km, Uzbekistan - 137 km, China - 76 km, Iran - 936 km. Geography Afghanistan played an important role in the development of the country's economy.

One of the directions: Afghanistan tourism, which attracts more and more travelers every year. The total area of ​​the territory is 652.2 thousand km 2. The main part of the country consists of mountain ranges (about 4/5). The Hindu Kush is the main mountain system, it is located in the northeast of the country. The average height is about 4,270 meters, the highest point of the ridge in the country is Mount Turgaran (6,729 meters). In the west are the Bandi-Turkestan and Safedkokh ranges. The highest point of the country is Mount Novshak (7,475 meters). The following plains predominate in the north and southwest: Bactrian, Registan, Dashti-Margo. The mountain ranges are intersected by deep river valleys, the main of which are Helmand, Kabul, and Harirud. The northern border of the country stretches along the Amu Darya River.

Afghanistan time

The territory of this country is in the UTC+4 time zone and does not switch to daylight saving time. Afghanistan time ahead of Moscow time by 1.5 hours in winter and half an hour in summer.

Afghanistan Climate

Thanks to geography This country is quite advantageous; the country's climate is characterized by variability: from continental dry in the central part of the state (with low temperatures in winter and high in summer) to subtropical in the Kandahar region. Afghanistan Climate characterized by sharp fluctuations in both annual and daily average temperatures

Afghanistan weather

In the valleys in summer, daytime temperatures reach +50° C. Average temperatures and the amount of precipitation vary with altitude: in winter from +8 to −21 ° C and below, in summer – from +33 to 0 ° C. In deserts, 41-51 mm of precipitation falls, on plateaus - 200-250 mm, on the windward slopes of the Hindu Kush Mountains 400-599 mm, in the south-eastern part of Afghanistan 801 mm per year. The rainy season in the country lasts from October to April. Favorable for travel is one of the factors attracting tourists to this amazing country.

Nature of Afghanistan

Afghanistan rich in diversity of both flora and fauna. The plains of the country are dominated by deserts. The steppes took over the plateau. Forests (5% of the country's territory) are concentrated in the east. In mountainous areas at altitudes above 2400-3500 meters, coniferous forests dominate. Deciduous trees grow below: ash, juniper. The most common fruit trees are peach, apricot, apple, and pear. In the valley of the Amudarya River there are tugai forests, dominated by vegetation such as poplar-turanga, willow, comb, and reeds. In the desert and steppe there are spotted jackals, hyenas, wild donkeys, saiga antelopes and antelopes, in the mountainous areas - leopard-irbis, mountain goats, mountain sheep. In the river valley you can meet the jungle cat, Turanian tiger and wild boar. The Afghan fox is widespread, causing great damage to sheep flock owners, especially in winter. Nature of Afghanistan is famous for its famous dog breed: the Afghan Hound, bred in the country.

The first written mention of Afghanistan dates back to the 6th century BC. e. It is clear that in fact the history of this country goes back many centuries. To this day, in Afghanistan you can meet the descendants of the Greeks who came there with Alexander the Great. In this ancient country, despite numerous wars, many unique attractions have been preserved. In addition, there are excellent conditions for mountaineering and rock climbing. Unfortunately, due to the political situation, Afghanistan remains closed to foreign tourists.

Geography of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is located at the crossroads of South, Central and West Asia. In the south and east, Afghanistan borders with Pakistan and China (in the east), in the west - with Iran, in the north - with Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. There is no access to the sea. The total area of ​​this country is 647,500 square meters. km., and the total length of the state border is 5,529 km.

Most of Afghanistan is mountainous, but there are valleys, steppes and deserts. The Hindu Kush mountain system stretches from northeast to southwest. The highest point in the country is Mount Noshak, whose height reaches 7,492 meters.

In the north of Afghanistan there is the Amu Darya River. Other large Afghan rivers are Harirud, Helmand, Farakhrud and Khashrud.

Capital

The capital of Afghanistan is Kabul, which is now home to about 700 thousand people. According to archaeological data, an urban settlement on the site of modern Kabul existed already in the 2nd century AD.

Official language of Afghanistan

Afghanistan has two official languages, Pashto and Dari (Farsi), both belonging to the Iranian group of the Indo-European language family.

Religion

Almost all residents of Afghanistan profess Islam, the vast majority of them are Sunnis, and about 15% are Shiites.

Government structure of Afghanistan

According to the current Constitution of 2004, Afghanistan is an Islamic republic in which Islam is the state religion. The head of the country is the President, elected for 5 years.

The bicameral parliament in Afghanistan is called the National Assembly, it consists of two chambers - the House of Elders (102 people) and the House of the People (250 deputies).

To make particularly important decisions (for example, to approve the Constitution), the Council of Elders “Great Assembly” gathers in Afghanistan. The history of the “Great Meetings” goes back centuries and is lost somewhere in the 15th century.

Climate and weather

Most of Afghanistan has a subarctic mountain climate (winters are dry and cold). The rest of Afghanistan has a desert and semi-desert climate. The mountains and valleys bordering Pakistan are exposed to the Indian Ocean monsoons during the summer. In summer the air temperature reaches +49C, and in winter - -9C. Most precipitation falls between October and April. In the mountains, the average annual precipitation is 1,000 mm, and in deserts and semi-deserts - 100 mm.

Rivers and lakes

In the north of Afghanistan flows the Amu Darya River, the tributaries of which are lost in the Hindu Kush. In general, many Afghan rivers are replenished by water flows from the mountains. Other large Afghan rivers are the Harirud (flowing from the central part of the country to the west, forming the border with Iran there), Helmand, Farakhrud, Kabul and Khashrud. By the way, the Kabul River crosses the border with Pakistan and then flows into the Indus River.

Afghan lakes are small in size. Of these, lakes Zarkol (bordering Tajikistan), Shiveh in Badakhshan and the salt lake Istadeh-ye Moqor, located south of Ghazni, should be highlighted.

Afghan culture

Afghanistan is made up of different ethical groups. Therefore, the culture of this country is very diverse.

One of the most important holidays for Afghans is Nowruz, but this is understandable, because... they are mostly Muslim (some experts argue that Nowruz is not a Muslim holiday). In general, Afghans celebrate all the main Islamic holidays - Mawlid-an-Nabi, Eid al-Ada and Eid al-Fitr (we have already mentioned Navruz).

Many Afghan holidays are domestic in nature (they are celebrated with family).

Kitchen

Afghanistan is home to Pashtuns, Tajiks and Uzbeks. This means that Afghan cuisine is a fusion of the culinary traditions of these three peoples. In addition, Indian influence is evident in Afghan cuisine. It was from India that spices (saffron, coriander, cardamom and black pepper) came to Afghanistan. Afghans prefer dishes that are not too spicy and not too hot.

The most popular dishes among Afghans are Qabli Pulao (boiled rice with carrots, raisins and lamb), Kabab (lamb kebab), Qorma (meat with vegetables and fruits), Mantu dumplings, Shorma soup. By the way, Afghans love to eat Qorma with Chalow rice. There are three types of bread in Afghanistan - Naan, Obi Naan and Lavash.

An integral part of the Afghan diet is fresh and dried fruits (grapes, apricots, melons, plums, pomegranates, various berries).

Traditional non-alcoholic drinks - kefir, whey, tea.

Sights of Afghanistan

In ancient times, the territory of modern Afghanistan was part of some of the most ancient states in the world. The ancient Greeks, led by Alexander the Great, reached these lands (and conquered them). Unfortunately, due to numerous wars, many Afghan historical and cultural monuments have already been irretrievably lost. However, this country still has unique attractions. The Top 10 most interesting Afghan attractions, in our opinion, may include the following:

1. Wazir Akbar Khan Mosque in Kabul
2. Sherpur Mosque in Kabul
3. Ghazni Fortress
4. Mausoleum of Timur Shah in Kabul
5. Fort in Nuristan
6. Puli Khishti Mosque in Kabul
7. Tomb of Ahmad Shah Masood in Panjshir
8. Mausoleum of Emir Abdurrahman in Kabul
9. Ruins of the Takhti-Pul mosque in Balkh
10. Palace of Emir Habibullah near Kabul

Cities and resorts

The largest cities in Afghanistan are Herat, Kandahar, Mazar-i-Sharif, Jalalabad, Kutznduz and, of course, the capital, Kabul.

Afghanistan has excellent conditions for mountaineering and rock climbing. In the northeast of the country there is Mount Nushak, which is part of the Hindu Kush mountain system. Many climbers dream of conquering this peak, but due to the political situation this is not yet possible.

Several years ago, the Afghan authorities opened the Abi-Wakhan mountain route, which runs through the territory of the picturesque gorge of the same name. Once upon a time, a section of this route was part of the Great Silk Road. However, tourists are not in a hurry to come to Afghanistan yet.

Souvenirs/shopping

From Afghanistan, foreigners usually bring handicrafts, carpets, Afghan sheepskin coats, national men's clothing, knives, etc.

Office hours

Afghanistan is located in South-West Asia, between 60°30` and 75°E longitude and 20°21` and 38°30`N latitude, mainly within the northeastern part of the Iranian Plateau. Afghanistan borders Pakistan to the south and east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to the north, and China and India to the far northeast.

The state is divided into 29 provinces (wilayats) and 2 districts of central subordination. In the mid-1980s, approx. 20% of the country's population. Refugees from villages swelled the population of a number of large cities, primarily Kabul and Jalalabad. However, due to hostilities in the 1990s, which broke out in the immediate vicinity of some major cities, there was an outflow of population, primarily from Kabul and Mazar-i-Sharif. As a result of heavy fighting in 1992, the population of the capital and its environs decreased and, according to 1996 estimates, amounted to only 647.5 thousand people compared to 2 million in the early 1990s. In other most significant cities, according to available data, they lived (thousands of people): in Kandahar - approx. 225.5, Herat - 177.3, Mazar-i-Sharif - 130.6, Jalalabad - 58.0 and Kunduz - 57.

Relief of Afghanistan

Mountains and plateaus occupy 80% of the territory; most of the country is home to rocky deserts and dry steppes. Afghanistan occupies the northeastern part of the Iranian Plateau, which includes high ridges and intermountain valleys. The eastern regions of the country from southwest to northeast are crossed by the high massive ridges of the Hindu Kush with a height of more than 4000–5000 m, and within the Wakhan Range - more than 6000 m. Here, on the border with Pakistan, is the highest point of the country, Mount Naushak (7485 m). In the upper tier of the mountains, especially in the northeast, modern glaciation with various types of glaciers is widespread.

To the west of the Hindu Kush there is a large, highly dissected, inaccessible Hazarajat highland with a height of more than 3000 m (some peaks reach 4000 m). In these mountains, physical weathering actively occurs, as a result of which rocks are destroyed, and their fragments accumulate in the form of screes (hyraxes) along the slopes and at their feet. From Hazarajat to the west and southwest, systems of lower ridges fan out. The Paropamiz Mountains are approx. 600 km, up to 250 km wide and consisting of two main ridges: Safedhok - in the north and Siahkok - in the south, separated by the valley of the Harirud River, located in the north-west of Afghanistan. The Safedkoh ridge is approx. 350 km and reaches an altitude of 3642 m in the east and 1433 m in the west.

In the north of Afghanistan there is the vast Bactrian Plain, which slopes towards the Amu Darya Valley. The surface of the plain in the foothills of the Hindu Kush and Paropamiz is composed of loess deposits and is dissected by numerous rivers. To the north it turns into a sandy desert.

In the southwest of Afghanistan there are endorheic hilly plateaus with a height of 500 to 1000 m. Vast areas are occupied by the sandy Registan desert and the clayey-gravelly desert of Dashti-Margo.

In the southeast of the country there is a weakly dissected plateau less than 2000 m high, which is associated with several oases. The largest of them is in the vicinity of the city of Kandahar.

Minerals of Afghanistan

Afghanistan contains a lot of mineral resources, but their development is limited. Afghanistan has reserves of such important energy resources as oil (Sari-Pul), natural gas (Shibirgan), and coal (Karkar, Ishpushta, Darayi-Suf, Karoh). In the north of the country, salinity structures are pronounced near Talikan. Rock salt is mined near Anahoy and in other places. There are industrial deposits of copper (south of Kabul), iron (north and west of Kabul), beryllium (north of Jalalabad), manganese, lead-zinc, and tin ores. Afghanistan is famous for its deposits of high-quality lapis lazuli (in the northeast of the country in the Kokchi River basin). There are placer deposits of gold. It is possible to extract high-quality marble, talc, granite, basalt, dolomite, gypsum, limestone, kaolin, asbestos, mica, emeralds, amethysts, and jasper.

Afghanistan Statistical Indicators
(as of 2012)

Afghanistan is the only major supplier of lapis lazuli to the world market. There is a large natural gas field in the Shibergan area (136 billion cubic meters)

Afghanistan Climate

subtropical continental (with significant temperature ranges), dry. Average January temperatures on the plains are from 0° to 8°C (absolute minimum –20 – –25°C). Average July temperatures in the plains are 24–32°C, and the recorded absolute maximum temperature is 45°C (at Girishk, Helmand Province). In Kabul, the average temperature in July is 25° C, in January – 3° C. The weather is usually clear and sunny during the day, and cool or cold at night.

Average annual precipitation is low: on the plains approx. 200 mm, in the mountains up to 800 mm. The rainy season on the plains of Afghanistan lasts from October to April. A specific moisture regime manifests itself in the southeast of the country, where the summer monsoons penetrate, bringing rainfall in July-August. Thanks to the monsoons, the annual rainfall reaches 800 mm. In the southwest, in Sistan, in some places there is no precipitation at all.

Water resources of Afghanistan

The main rivers are Amu Darya, Murghab, Harirud, Helmand, Kabul. With the exception of the Kabul River, which flows into the Indus, and the left tributaries of the Panj (upper reaches of the Amu Darya), the rivers of Afghanistan end in drainless lakes or are lost in the sand. The main source of food for large rivers is mountain snow and glaciers. Floods occur in spring and summer. Due to large water withdrawals for irrigation and strong evaporation, even large rivers become shallow in the second half of summer. On the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush, the Kabul and Helmand rivers, which are glacially fed, originate. The most fertile and densely populated region of Afghanistan is confined to the Kabul basin. The Helmand River crosses a large part of the country in a southwestern direction and is lost within the desert clay plain of Sistan in Iran. There are a number of oases in its valley. The Harirud River (Tedjen in the lower reaches of Turkmenistan) originates in the Hindu Kush and flows west, and then turns sharply north, forming the Iran-Afghan border. Its waters irrigate the fertile Herat oasis. The rivers of the Bactrian Plain in the north have variable flows and dry out greatly in summer. Many of them do not reach the Amu Darya and are lost in the sands, forming vast deltas. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential and, as a rule, are not navigable. The Kabul River is navigable for approx. 120 km.

There are few lakes in Afghanistan. In the Hindu Kush mountains, the largest and most picturesque lakes are Sarykul, Shiva and Bandi-Amir. In the west and southwest of the country there are salt lakes that dry up in summer - Sabari, Namaksar, Dagi-Tundi.

Soils. The foothills and valleys are characterized by chestnut soils, brown soils and gray soils, formed in the north on loess deposits, and in the south – on clayey-crushed stones. On the most moist mountain slopes there are chernozem and mountain meadow soils. The largest part of arable land is concentrated in the northern regions and intermountain basins (on alluvial, more fertile soils). Gray desert soils and saline soils are common in the south and southwest of the country. The fertile soils of the oases are largely the result of centuries of peasant labor.

Natural areas. Flora and fauna of Afghanistan

The plains of Afghanistan are dominated by deserts. The plateaus are occupied by steppes. Forests (about 5% of the territory) are concentrated in the mid-mountain belt of the Hindu Kush in the east of the country. At an altitude of 2400-3500 m, coniferous forests dominate. Tugai forests are common in river valleys.

Afghanistan is dominated by dry steppe and desert landscapes; dry steppes are common on the foothill plains and intermountain basins. They are dominated by wheatgrass, fescue and other grasses. The lowest parts of the basins are occupied by takyrs and salt marshes, and in the southwest of the country - sandy and rocky deserts with a predominance of wormwood, camel thorn, tamarix, and saxaul. The lower slopes of the mountains are dominated by thorny subshrubs (astragals, acantholimons) in combination with juniper woodlands, groves of wild pistachio, wild almond and rose hips.

In the Indo-Himalayan region in the east and southeast of the country at altitudes from 750 to 1500 m above sea level. steppes alternate with tree tracts of Indian palm, acacia, figs, and almonds. Above 1500 m there are deciduous forests of evergreen balut oak with an undergrowth of almond, bird cherry, jasmine, buckthorn, sophora, and cotoneaster. Walnut forests sometimes grow on the western slopes, pomegranate groves on the southern slopes, and Gerard pine at altitudes of 2200–2400 m, which above (up to 3500 m) is replaced by Himalayan pine with an admixture of Himalayan cedar and Western Himalayan fir. In more humid habitats, spruce-fir forests are common, in the lower tier of which ash grows, and in the undergrowth - birch, pine, honeysuckle, hawthorn, and currants. Juniper forests grow on dry, well-warmed southern slopes. Above 3500 m thickets of dwarf juniper and rhododendron are common, and above 4000 m there are alpine and subalpine meadows.

In the Amu Darya valley, tugai forests are widespread, dominated by turanga poplar, jidda, willow, comb, and reed. In the tugai forests of mountain rivers Pamir, white and laurel-leaved poplars, elk, tamarix, sea buckthorn grow, and in the south - oleander.

Fauna In the open spaces of desert and steppe plains and plateaus, spotted hyenas, jackals, wild donkeys, goitered gazelle and saiga antelopes are found, in the mountains - leopard-irbis, mountain goats, argali sheep. In the tugai thickets along the river valleys one can find wild boar, jungle cat, and Turanian tiger. Afghan fox, stone marten and wolves are widespread, causing considerable damage to sheep flocks, especially in winter. In deserts and dry steppes, the world of reptiles is richly represented: monitor lizards (up to half a meter long), agamas, steppe python, poisonous snakes (viper, cobra, efa, copperhead). Deserts abound in rodents (marmots, gophers, voles, gerbils). There are many poisonous and harmful insects: scorpions, karakurts, phalanges, locusts, etc. The avifauna is rich. Typical birds of prey are the kite, the vulture, the kestrel, the golden eagle, the Himalayan vulture, and the Indian laggar falcon. Wheatears, larks, and desert chickens are widespread in deserts. The southeastern regions are characterized by the Bengal roller, snipe, southern dove, Himalayan jay, pika, and Indian mynah starling. The rivers abound with commercial fish such as barbel, catfish, carp, trout, and asp.

Population of Afghanistan

Number and national composition. According to the first general census in 1979, the population of Afghanistan was 15,540 thousand people, including 2,500 thousand nomads. In the 1980s, the rate of annual natural population growth was estimated at 2.2% with a birth rate of 4.9% and a death rate of 2.7%, and in 2000 they were respectively 3.54% (taking into account the return of refugees from Iran), 4. 2% and 1.8%. According to estimates for 2003, 28,717 thousand people lived in the country.

Afghanistan is a multinational country. The country's population is 38% made up of representatives of Pashtun tribes professing orthodox Sunni Islam. They are settled mainly in the southeastern and southern regions bordering Pakistan. In the founding of Afghanistan as an independent state (the Durrani state) in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani, a native of the powerful Pashtun Durrani tribe, played a major role. In this regard, the recent capture of Kabul by the Taliban and their rise to power is considered by them as historical revenge, since the Durranis predominate among the Taliban. President Najibullah, executed by the Taliban, belonged to another Pashtun tribe - the Ahmedzais.

All Pashtuns speak Pashto, a language close to Persian (Farsi). Among the Pashtun tribes there are sedentary and nomadic ones. Both are distinguished by belligerence; many disputes are still resolved on the basis of the traditional code of honor - Pashtunwali, which is based on the protection of personal dignity and blood feud.

In second place in number (25%) are Tajiks living in the northern and northeastern regions of the country, behind the Hindu Kush. Being a people of Iranian origin, they use the Dari (or Farsi-Kabuli) language, which is similar to Persian. Among Tajiks, Sunni Muslims predominate, but there are also many Ismailis. The main occupations of Tajiks are agriculture and trade. Many of them, having received an education, became officials and statesmen.

Turkmens (3% of the population) live in the north-west of Afghanistan, and Uzbeks live in the north (9%). Both of them are also Sunni Muslims. Their main occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding; the Turkmen are known as skilled carpet weavers. Uzbek leader Rashid Dostum heads the National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, which counters the Taliban.

The Hazaras, a people of Mongolian origin who practice Shia Islam, number approx. 19% of Afghanistan's population. They are concentrated in the central part of the country: farmers and sheep breeders predominate among them; in the cities they form a large layer of hired workers. Their main political organization is the Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan (Hezbe Wahdat).

In the western regions of the country live Persian peoples who profess Shiite Islam. Other nationalities (Nuristanis, Wakhans, Kirghiz, Charaimaks, Brahuis, Kazakhs, Pashais, etc.) are few in number. The Nuristanis, including the Kati, Paruni, Vaigali and Ashkuni tribes, were called kafirs (“infidels”) before their forced conversion to Islam by the Afghan emir in 1895–1896. They lead a very secluded lifestyle in the high mountains north of the Kabul River valley. Several thousand Wakhan people are concentrated within the narrow Wakhan corridor, and the Kyrgyz are concentrated in the extreme northeast of the country, on the Pamir Plateau. The Charaimaks, or aimaks (about 600 thousand people), a people of mixed ethnic origin, live in the mountains in the west of the country, along the Afghan-Iranian border. Baluchis and Brahuis inhabit some areas in the southwest of the country.

Before the outbreak of hostilities in the 1980s, approximately 76% of Afghanistan's population was primarily engaged in sedentary agriculture, while 9% were pastoralists and led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle.

Languages. According to the latest constitution, the official languages ​​of Afghanistan were Pashto and Dari (or Farsi-Kabuli, an Afghan dialect of Persian). Dari serves as a lingua franca almost everywhere, except in Kandahar province and the eastern parts of Ghazni province, where Pashto dominates. Uzbeks, Turkmen and Kyrgyz are Turkic-speaking peoples. The Hazaras use one of the archaic dialects of the Persian language, with which Baluchi and Tajik are also associated. Nuristanis speak languages ​​that represent a separate ancient branch that emerged from the Iranian and Indian language groups. The Brahuis speak a language belonging to the Dravidian family, similar to the languages ​​of the peoples of South India.

The climate of Afghanistan is varied due to the large number of hills and mountains located throughout the country. Summers in the country are hot and winters are cold. In addition to differences in altitude, the difference in climatic conditions is also explained by the country's lack of access to the sea - in summer there is almost no cooling effect on the country's territory that proximity to the sea could provide, and in winter the cold is less regulated. In the southwestern part of Afghanistan there is a combination of two types of climate - warm steppe and warm desert. In the northeastern part of the country the climate is cold steppe.

Hot Summer

The summer months in Afghanistan are characterized by hot and dry days. In June, July, and August the nights are also warm. At night in lower parts of the country the average temperature is 22-28 degrees Celsius. Temperatures may be lower in places with altitudes above 3,000 meters above sea level. In summer, hot winds often blow at speeds reaching 150 kilometers per hour, bringing with them a lot of dust and sand from Iran. This wind is called "sistan", or "120-day wind". In July, the maximum air temperature can often reach 36-43 degrees. Starting in August, the temperature drops. The wetter and cooler season begins in October.

Low precipitation

Afghanistan receives little rainfall. Most of the rain falls in winter. The northern part of the country receives slightly more rain in April and May than other parts of Afghanistan. In the capital of the country, Kabul, only 350 mm falls. rain per year. In Kandahar there is even less rain - only 200 mm. per year, and in the driest regions of the country in the southwest, on the border with Iran, there is even less rainfall. In Zaranj, 50 mm falls. precipitation per year, and in some years there may be as little as 20 mm. and less.

Afghanistan's climate in numbers

The table below shows the average minimum and maximum air temperatures in the capital of Afghanistan, Kabul, throughout the year.