Presentation of international relations in the 16th and 18th centuries. International relations in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Assignments for the paragraph
The time of French hegemony in Europe in the 17th century.
In the 17th century serious changes were taking place in the balance of power on the political map of Europe, which were mainly associated with the decline of Spanish hegemony on the continent and the establishment of French influence. At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. The French absolute monarchy finally takes shape. Due to the large peasantry and the emerging bourgeoisie, the state treasury was constantly replenished, which allowed the monarchs to pursue an active foreign policy and strengthen the position of France, both on the continent and beyond.
The principles of “natural boundaries” and “political balance” were fundamental in the foreign policy of all French rulers of the 17th century. Thus, Henry IV (Navara), the first of the Bourbon dynasty, who ruled in 1594-1610. in his policy he pursued two goals: to weaken the power of the Habsburg dynasty and to maintain the emerging balance between the European powers, which was beneficial for France. To this end, he continued to maintain friendly relations with England, which helped him, a Protestant Huguenot, fight against Catholic Spain and seize the French throne. However, at the same time, Henry IV secretly opposed the plans of English sailors, traders and the actions of British diplomats in Italy and the East, where France had a strong position. Moreover, being a rival of the Habsburg dynasty, Henry IV, in order to weaken it, contributed to the conclusion of peace between Spain and Holland. Thus, the French monarch contributed to the recognition of the independence of 7 cantons in the north of the Netherlands, which fought against colonial dependence on Spain.
In the East, in Turkey, Henry IV, thanks to his cunning and perspicacious foreign policy, achieved in 1604 the restoration of his influence and the benefits received by France back in 1535, namely: all states that wanted to trade with Turkey had to send there their ships flying the French flag. The only exceptions were the British, who in 1599 obtained from the Sultan the right to enter his ports under their own flag. Having a “friendship” with the Turkish Sultan, Henry IV supported rumors that he intended to oppose the Sultan, expel him from Europe and declare a crusade against him. As for the policy towards the German Protestant princes, wanting to weaken the Habsburgs and fearing the unification of all German lands, he supported them during the religious wars in Europe, and even after converting to Catholicism, he remained a defender of the “original faith”, maintaining friendly relations with them .
Henry IV's successor in foreign policy was Cardinal Richelieu, who was the first minister and adviser to the young King Louis XIII and the practical ruler of France from 1624 to 1642. Guided by the principles of “natural borders” and “political balance,” Cardinal Richelieu put forward the idea of expanding the eastern borders of France to the Rhine in order to weaken the Habsburgs and establish “political balance” in Europe. In 1633, the cardinal wrote to Louis XIII that if the king sided with the Protestant princes of Germany against the House of Austria, they would give him the entire territory up to the Rhine. The path to the Rhine lies through Lorraine. If it is annexed, then it is possible to gradually extend the possessions of France to the Rhine and even take part in the division of Flanders, if it rebels against Spanish rule. It is noteworthy that Cardinal Richelieu, being a strict Catholic and, having defeated the domestic Protestant Huguenots in 1628 near Larochelle, nevertheless supported the Protestant German princes.
This fact most obviously confirms that in his foreign policy he was not only guided, but also embodied in practice the principles of “state interest” and “political balance.” The theoretical justification and official propaganda of such a policy was carried out by one of the famous French publicists, Chantereau-Lefebvre. He argued that the ancient Franks conquered Gaul, that is, a huge space located between the ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and bounded by the Rhine River, the Pyrenees Mountains and the Alps. This area has long been known as the Gauls of the Belgians, Celts and Aquitans. Chantereau-Lefebvre thus included in France Alsace and Lorraine, Savoy, Nice - in a word, everything that France subsequently took possession of, in keeping with its power and military successes. Cardinal Richelieu himself wrote in his “Political Testament”: “The purpose of my stay in power was to return to Gaul the borders intended for it by nature, to return the Gaul king to the Gauls, to put France in the place of Gaul and, wherever ancient Gaul was, to establish a new one.” "
The pan-European event of the 17th century, which determined the balance of political forces on the continent and the formation of a new world order, was the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) between the Holy Roman Emperor and his allies, on the one hand, and the coalition of France - Sweden with its allies, on the one hand. the other side. The Thirty Years' War had religious overtones.
By the end of the 16th century. The Turkish pressure on the possessions of the House of Habsburg weakened, and the Habsburgs again turned their attention to Germany, hoping to restore their influence and imperial power there, weakened by the Reformation. The emperor's struggle to subjugate the German princes to him took place largely under religious slogans. It was a struggle between the “Catholic reaction” and Protestantism, which strengthened the position of the princes and became the banner of their resistance to the empire. Ferdinand II, the nominal Emperor of the Empire, dreamed of a united Germany under his unconditional and unlimited power. The Thirty Years' War was the empire's last attempt to subjugate Germany. If such plans had come true, a huge power would have grown up next to France. Cardinal Richelieu strained all his strength to prevent this. He had to continue the traditional policy of France, supporting the Protestant princes against the Catholic emperor. Cardinal Richelieu began negotiations with the Danish king, who, fearing the strengthening of the Habsburgs in Northern Germany and on the coast of the North and Baltic Seas, willingly accepted subsidies from England and Holland and began a war against the Empire.
Next, the cardinal used all his diplomatic skill to throw the forces of Sweden against the Habsburgs under the leadership of its brave commander, King Gustavus Adolphus, with whom an alliance was concluded in 1631. Sweden and France pledged to “restore the freedom of Germany,” that is, to raise the Protestant princes against the German emperor and introduce the order that existed there before 1618. France pledged to provide the Swedish king with a subsidy of 1 million livres annually; for this, the king promised to send 30 thousand infantry and 6 thousand cavalry to Germany to act against the emperor. Sweden thus acted as a direct mercenary of France; its task was to maintain the political dispersion of Germany and prevent the strengthening of imperial power.
However, Sweden also had its own interests in the Baltic - establishing control over it. Sweden was in the 17th century. the most powerful of the Scandinavian states. In the 16th century The Moscow state lost its possessions on the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which Ivan the Terrible once sought to expand. The Swedes occupied both the eastern coast of the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Riga: now they dreamed of capturing the entire coast of the Baltic Sea and, having placed fortresses at the mouths of large rivers along which Polish and Prussian landowners exported grain to Western Europe, collecting duties from them in for your benefit. When Gustavus Adolphus was assassinated in 1632, France intervened directly in German affairs; in the name of the notorious German “freedom”, she systematically ravaged West Germany. The long war, which devastated Germany and buried all hopes of its political unification, ended with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
The history of diplomacy usually begins with the Peace of Westphalia in the history of European congresses. Peace was concluded after long negotiations in the form of two peace treaties signed at the Osnabrück Congress of 1645-1648. between the Holy Roman Emperor and his allies, on the one hand, and Sweden and its allies, on the other, and at the Congress of Munster 1645-1648. between the Holy Roman Emperor and his allies, on the one hand, and France and its allies, on the other.
Swedish claims were satisfied almost completely. Sweden received all of Western and part of Eastern Pomerania with the cities of Stettin (Szczecin), Damm, Holnau, the islands of Rügen and Wolin (the mouth of the Oder), the city of Wismar with the harbor, as well as the bishoprics of Bremen and Verdun (the mouth of the Weser), which turned into secular principalities ; it was stipulated that the old Hanseatic cities - Wismar, Bremen, Stralsund, Verden, etc. - retain their liberties.
As the sovereign of these possessions, Sweden joined the empire and received the right to send its deputies to the imperial diets. Sweden's main goal was thus achieved: the most important harbors on the coast of not only the Baltic, but also the North Sea were in its hands. In fact, she established control over river trade, ensuring that the mouths of Eastern European rivers flowing into the Baltic and North Seas, along which grain cargoes from Eastern Europe to Holland and England traveled, were in her hands. Since territorial concessions in favor of Sweden were made at the expense of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg, the latter were compensated by secularized (transferred to the ownership of the state or other secular owners) bishoprics and monasteries. Brandenburg received the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Kamin, Minden and the right to annex the archbishopric of Magdeburg after the death of the archbishop. Mecklenburg was rewarded with the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg and other ecclesiastical territories.
France finally annexed 3 Lorraine bishoprics - Metz, Toul and Verdun - and received all of Alsace, with the exception of Strasbourg. Bavaria retained the Upper Palatinate and the associated electorate. Switzerland and the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland) were recognized as independent and left the empire. The victorious powers, France and Sweden, were declared the main guarantors of the implementation of the Peace of Westphalia.
In the religious field, the Peace of Westphalia equalized the rights of Calvinists, Catholics and Lutherans in Germany, legalized the secularization of church lands, but deprived the German princes of the right to determine the religious affiliation of their subjects. Nevertheless, the princes were recognized as having the right to conduct an independent foreign policy, declare war, sign peace, and conclude treaties among themselves and with foreign powers. True, there was a small reservation: the foreign policy of the German princes should not be directed against the empire.
The significance of the Peace of Westphalia lies in the fact that it established the internal system of Germany for a long time and consolidated its political dismemberment, effectively putting an end to the empire. On the other hand, having defined the boundaries of the states of the European continent, the Treaty of Westphalia was the source document for all subsequent treaties, right up to the French bourgeois revolution of the late 18th century.
The Peace of Westphalia was a triumph of the policies of Cardinal Richelieu, although he himself was no longer alive at that time. The continuator of Richelieu's policy was Cardinal Mazarin. He was in power during the period of formalization of peace terms in Osnabrück and Münster. Later, in 1659, he concluded the Treaty of the Pyrenees with Spain, against which he fought in alliance with England, at that time led by O. Cromwell. This peace, by which France acquired parts of Luxembourg, Roussillon, Artois and Gennegau, along with the Treaty of Westphalia, prepared the hegemony of France in Europe. The most dangerous of France's opponents - the Empire - virtually ceased to exist. “Primordial German freedom” triumphed in Germany, “political freedom” in Italy. Under the cover of pompous words about “freedom,” the political fragmentation and helplessness of these two European countries, with which France could henceforth do whatever she pleased, was consolidated. It is quite understandable that Cardinal Mazarin could now calmly impose “natural borders” on his neighbors, citing the times of the ancient Gauls, as proof of the real and imaginary rights of France to the disputed territories.
During the reign of the “Sun King” Louis XIV (1643-1715), French absolutism entered its period of greatest glory and greatest international significance; but under him, in the second half of his reign, it began to decline. A characteristic feature of French diplomacy and foreign policy during this period were the so-called “dynastic wars,” that is, the desire to expand French possessions by military means, justifying seizures by the right of inheritance of a particular territory. During the reign of Louis XIV, she participated in, moreover, initiated four dynastic wars, which ultimately undermined her influence in Europe and marked the beginning of the end of French hegemony on the continent.
The first war was caused by France's desire to seize Belgium, that is, that part of the Netherlands that, after the Dutch Revolution, remained in the hands of Spain. The pretext for the war was in keeping with the spirit of the times: it was purely dynastic. Based on the fact that the new king of Spain, the son of Philip IV, Charles II (1665-1700) came from a second marriage, and according to the laws of Flanders, children from a second marriage did not inherit the throne of their father, Louis XIV, married to the daughter of Philip IV from first marriage, declared claims to Belgium on behalf of his wife. Holland rebelled against this, fearing that Belgium’s turn would come. Holland entered into an alliance with England and Sweden. The war was short-lived (1667-1668) and ended with the signing of the Peace of Aachen, according to which France annexed several border fortresses (Lille and others).
The war showed that any offensive action by France provokes a coalition against it from the European powers, who fear its strengthening in Europe. The Second Dynastic War (1672-1679) was no exception. During this war, despite the efforts of Louis XIV to prevent an alliance between Holland and Sweden and to enlist the support of England, the Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, joined the anti-French coalition. He preferred to have a relatively weak Holland as a neighbor to his Rhineland possessions, but not a powerful France. The German and Spanish Habsburgs and, finally, the empire as a whole opposed France.
The dynastic policy of the English king Charles II displeased the British themselves, who began to view France as their main rival, and forced their king to dissolve the alliance with her and end the war. France's diplomatic success was the involvement of Sweden in the war with Brandenburg. But at Fehrbellin (1675), Frederick William of Brandenburg inflicted a decisive defeat on the Swedes. France agreed to peace in Nimwegen in 1679, according to which it still received several more points in Belgium (Cambrai, Valenciennes) and an entire region near its eastern border - Franche-Comté.
The Peace of Nymwegen in 1679 marked the period of greatest power of France in Europe. Taking advantage of the political weakness of the Holy Roman Empire, Louis XIV began to annex the imperial territories bordering France. Special “reunification chambers” were created in which French lawyers were engaged in establishing the king’s “rights” to this or that territory of the empire. In 1681, Louis XIV suddenly captured Strasbourg. Since at this time the active actions of the Turks began, and the threat of their invasion loomed over Vienna itself, the Empire and Spain, by agreement in Regensburg (1684), recognized all these annexations for Louis XIV.
The continued strengthening of France alarmed all of Europe: Holland created a new coalition against France, initiated by a major political figure and diplomat of the Dutch Republic, Stadtholder William III of Orange, the future monarch of England after the restoration of the monarchy there in 1688. Immediately after the Peace of Nimwegens, he developed an energetic diplomatic campaign, aimed at isolating France as the most dangerous enemy. His diplomatic skill owed the existence of a secret defensive alliance, the “League of Augsburg,” concluded against France. This “league” included the emperor, Spain, Holland, Savoy, some small German princes, Italian sovereigns and, most importantly, Sweden, a long-time “friend” of France. There has been a turning point in Swedish politics.
During the first half of the 17th century. Sweden, interested in weakening the empire, was in an alliance with France and often acted at its behest and with subsidies received from Paris. The strengthening of France in the second half of the 17th century. and her attempts to seize Belgium and Holland, which held Swedish exports in their hands, aroused fears in Sweden. In 1681, Sweden concluded an alliance with William of Orange directed against France. A ring of her enemies has closed around France. From this period, France entered into a period of long struggle with England, and this struggle filled the history of international relations throughout the 18th century.
The position of Louis XIV became more complicated, but he still continued his conquests along the Rhine. The third war began (1688-1697), which extremely exhausted France. This, however, did not stop Louis XIV. His fourth and final war turned out to be a real ruin for France. This fourth war was called the War of the Spanish Succession.
Foreign policy of England during the bourgeois revolution of the 17th century.
The most important event in the history of England at the beginning of modern times was the bourgeois revolution of 1640-1660, the results of which determined the place and role of this country in the system of international relations for at least the next two and a half centuries. The English Revolution also determined the further foreign policy course of the state, influenced the process of formation of new principles and the formation of a new character of British diplomacy. As a result of a long confrontation with the monarchy, the English bourgeoisie came to power, received seats in parliament and, at the same time, the opportunity to influence the foreign policy course of the state, and even moreover, to shape it. The bourgeoisie and the new gentry wanted to establish lasting order and restore stable trade and diplomatic relations with the powers of the European continent. Possessing significant finances and developing production on a capitalist basis, they sought to conquer the European market, not militarily, but economically, to turn Europe into a market for the consumption of British goods.
The features of British diplomacy during the period of the English Revolution were simplicity of concept, determination and courage in resolving certain issues. These features distinguished the diplomacy of this period from the diplomacy of the period of absolute monarchy with its tendency to intrigue, mystery, complex intricacies, conspiracies, etc.
England's foreign policy was carried out in the 40-50s of the 17th century. first by Parliament, then after the dissolution of the Long Parliament in 1653 by Oliver Cromwell. At first, while there was a struggle between the king and parliament, foreign policy bore the stamp of complete indifference to European affairs. The fleet, bound by the interests of the bourgeoisie and trade, from the very beginning sided with parliament and the revolution, this protected the revolution from intervention by European powers.
European monarchs did not fully understand what was happening in England during this period and therefore did not take a serious interest in British problems. In the first years of the English revolution, the ruling circles of European states had not yet realized what kind of revolution it was and what its consequences would be for the future of the entire continent. Therefore, the civil war in England took place without much outside interference. Although the deposed British monarch Charles I Stuart tried more than once to enlist the support of France and conducted secret correspondence with her, his attempts were unsuccessful. Moreover, he was completely discredited when, after the Battle of Naseby in 1645, all his secret correspondence fell into the hands of Parliament. The king was presented as an open enemy of the state, a traitor, an anti-patriot, who tried to organize the intervention of European powers against his own people.
Following the aspirations of the trade and business sectors, Parliament put forward the restoration of normal diplomatic and trade relations with European states as the main priority of the foreign policy of the English Republic. During the Revolution, almost all the diplomatic agents of these powers continued to live in London. However, the issue of restoring diplomatic relations with these states was on the agenda. The leading continental powers were in no hurry to establish diplomatic relations with the new government of England after the overthrow of the monarchy. Their diplomatic representatives did not have new credentials from their sovereigns, who were in no hurry to recognize the republic.
The first European state to recognize the English Republic was Spain, a longtime enemy of Britain. The Spanish ambassador in London, Don Alonso Cardeña, although he did not receive new credentials from his monarch, was nevertheless authorized to enter into secret relations with the republican government. The first reason for this diplomatic recognition was the desire to enter into an alliance with England, ahead of its original rival France, and to set the British Republic against it. The second reason is the desire to harm Portugal, which separated from Spain in 1640. The Portuguese were in very strained relations with England after the start of the bourgeois revolution. Portugal provided assistance to the English royal corsairs, who robbed English republican ships.
Anglo-French relations began to deteriorate from the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution. Even before 1649, that is, before the public execution of Charles I, a customs war began between England and France. In 1648, the French government, believing that England was completely exhausted by the civil war, banned the import of English wool and silk products into France. Cardinal Mazarin, who was in power in France at that time, tried in this way to get certain concessions on this issue from England, torn apart by the strife. In turn, the English Parliament banned the import of French wines into the territory of its state. The British told the French charge d'affaires in England, Crull, that “despite their former faith in the king, they can easily do without him; They can do just as easily without French wine.”
The customs war, without an official declaration of war, practically developed into real military action, into the mutual seizure of merchant ships of both states. Taking advantage of the deterioration of Anglo-French relations and playing on the contradictions between the two states, the Spanish Ambassador Cardeña obtained new credentials from his government. He assured his king that if Spain officially recognized the English Republic, it would receive a lot of benefits from this. Mainly, by this action it was possible to finally persuade England to an anti-French alliance, to turn it from a maritime rival into an ally against France. In December 1650, Don Alonso Cardeña formally presented his credentials at a solemn meeting of Parliament, making a fiery speech that he was the first, on behalf of the greatest Christian sovereign, to recognize the Chamber as the supreme authority of the nation.
The news of the official recognition of the English Republic by Spain was unpleasant for the French court, but to a certain extent it pushed France towards a rapprochement with England and ultimately towards its diplomatic recognition. Moreover, the nascent French bourgeoisie, which suffered significant financial losses during the customs war between states, was interested in restoring not only diplomatic but also stable trade relations. French merchants, who were also robbed by English corsairs, pushed their government to recognize the English republic and restore trade relations.
In 1652, Cardinal Mazarin finally decided to begin negotiations through intermediaries with O. Cromwell, who was actually in charge of foreign affairs. Oliver Cromwell made several conditions for France. Firstly, diplomatic recognition of the republic by France and the appointment of an official ambassador to England. Secondly, the payment of remuneration to English subjects by France for naval privateering and compensation for losses incurred by the English fleet during the period of hostilities. In turn, O. Cromwell offered Cardinal Mazarin asylum in England in the event of successful actions of the Fronde, a mass movement to limit royal power and the creation of the States General in France.
The strengthening of the Fronde's activities and the active actions of the Spaniards for signing the Anglo-Spanish agreement directed against France forced Cardinal Mazarin to agree to O. Cromwell's conditions and agree to diplomatic recognition of the English Republic. In December 1652, the intendant of Picardy de Bordeaux was sent to London with a letter from the king to the English parliament. His speech to the parliamentary committee in charge of foreign policy stated that “the union that can exist between two neighboring states does not depend on the form of their government,” and a change in this should not be an obstacle to the establishment of stable trade relations and mutual consent. The final agreement with France was officially formalized a little later in 1655. O. Cromwell, playing on the Franco-Spanish contradictions, obtained a number of concessions from France, similar to the demands presented to Cardinal Mazarin in 1652 during the first attempt to restore diplomatic relations.
One of the most important foreign policy problems for England was the problem of relations with Holland, a powerful maritime and trading power in Europe in the 17th century, the most dangerous rival of the British. England, refusing to recognize Dutch hegemony on the seas and in trade, developed a policy towards this state. This policy boiled down to two mutually exclusive principles or ideas: either a strong alliance of two maritime powers, up to their complete merger into a single state under the auspices of England, or struggle, open military action with Holland until its complete defeat in order to establish British hegemony on the seas and in trade.
Carrying out the plan for an alliance with Holland, in February 1651, two extraordinary ambassadors of the English parliament, Saint John and Strickland, were sent to The Hague, where they were received with special solemnity and pomp. The seven provincial commissioners of the republic expressed a desire to maintain inviolably good relations with the English republic, offered friendship to the ambassadors and concluded a treaty in the form of common benefit. The British ambassadors went even further and in response to this proposed a closer and more sincere alliance. The true intention of the British was the following: to offer Holland a merger with England, or rather voluntary submission to England, in case of refusal, to break off all relations with it and destroy it as a maritime and trade rival. Dutch public opinion indignantly rejected the idea of such an alliance with England.
Relations between the two states became more and more strained, and military clashes and seizures of each other's merchant ships often occurred. Saint John and Strickland received new orders from Parliament to present their peace proposals to Holland in a more ultimatum form. This ultimatum consisted of seven points, according to which England and Holland were to act as a single state in matters of war and peace, in international treaties and alliances. In some cases, the Dutch States General had to follow the decrees of the English Parliament even in internal affairs. The English proposals were rejected by the States General, who regarded them as a humiliation of Holland.
Immediately after this, there was a sharp deterioration in Anglo-Dutch relations, the manifestation of which was the Navigation Act issued by O. Cromwell in 1651. This document was a typical manifestation of the economic doctrine of mercantilism of the 17th century. According to the act, foreign goods were allowed to be imported into England only on English ships that were under the command of the English and whose crews would consist of at least three-quarters English sailors. The Dutch, who specialized primarily in intermediary trade, were thus excluded from trade with England.
Soon open hostilities began between England and Holland, which gradually grew into an open war of 1652-1654. As a result of this war, Holland was defeated by England and forced to reconcile with the Navigation Act. Holland as a maritime rival was finished. One of the Dutch politicians Cornelli de Witt at a meeting of the States General of the United Provinces declared: “It is my duty to tell you that now both we and the sea are in the power of England.” After the Anglo-Dutch War, England gradually began to transform into the first most powerful naval power, which at the beginning of the 18th century. will establish hegemony on the seas and in trade. In 1654, simultaneously with the peace treaty between Holland and England, O. Cromwell concluded trade agreements with Sweden, Denmark, and Portugal.
As for relations between England and Spain, they developed quite complicatedly after the Anglo-Dutch War. Despite the fact that Spain was the first to enter into relations with republican England, the treaty of diplomatic recognition was never signed. Spain, trying to set England up against France and sign an anti-French treaty, offered O. Cromwell assistance in maintaining and establishing his power in the status of protector . Moreover, the Spanish ambassador Cardeña promised on behalf of his king that Spain would refuse to support any claims by Charles Stuart, the son of the executed English king, to the British throne.
France, in turn, fearing an Anglo-Spanish rapprochement and a joint anti-French alliance, put forward more favorable proposals for O. Cromwell. Cardinal Mazarin, on behalf of the French king, was ready to title the protector of England “brother”, “cousin”, that is, in fact, recognize O. Cromwell as the new monarch and founder of the new dynasty. He hinted that he would even expel the family of the executed Charles I Stuart from France, and offered O. Cromwell money and an alliance. O. Cromwell stated that he did not need any other title other than protector. Playing on Spanish-French antagonism, he waited and considered which of the powers to bet on in this situation.
Ultimately, the protector preferred an alliance with France, since she was strong and dangerous as a rival, the fight against her was fraught with surprises and large financial costs. Spain was in a stage of economic decline and represented rich and easy prey. Moreover, the English bourgeoisie also opposed the alliance with Spain. O. Cromwell demanded from Spain freedom of navigation to the West Indies and an end to inquisitorial persecution. After this demand, war with Spain became inevitable, which indeed soon began. On October 24, 1655, the Spanish ambassador Cardeña was expelled from England, which meant a final break with Spain. At the same time, O. Cromwell signed a peace and trade treaty with France. The Anglo-Spanish War ended with the defeat of the latter in 1658 after the death of O. Cromwell. As a result, England captured the island of Jamaica, the center of the slave trade in America, and began to control this most profitable type of trade.
XVII century was a turning point in British history. During the English bourgeois revolution, England managed to gain primacy in the seas and in trade, which was especially facilitated by the successful Anglo-Dutch and Anglo-Spanish wars. At the end of the XVII - beginning of the XVIII centuries. the most important and dangerous rival for England was France, a military conflict with which would subsequently lead to the final establishment of English hegemony in Europe and the seas.
The War of the Spanish Succession and the beginning of the decline of France's international importance
From the second half of the reign of Louis XIV, a new period in the diplomatic history of Europe began, which was marked by a gradual strengthening of the international role of England and its struggle with France for primacy in the plunder of the colonies. The most important stage of this struggle was the War of the Spanish Succession of 1701-1714. It began as a dynastic war, but in fact turned into the first great conflict between France and England for supremacy of the sea and the colonies.
The reason for the death of the Spanish inheritance was the death of the childless Charles II of Spain. Louis XIV considered himself the heir to Spanish possessions. It was the richest inheritance that ever existed. The matter was not only about the disruption of the “political balance” in Europe in favor of France, but in fact, about its world hegemony. In addition to Spain itself, the “heir” - Louis XIV - was to inherit the Italian, Dutch, as well as numerous African and American possessions of Spain.
Back in the 90s of the 17th century. Louis negotiated with other powers about the division of this inheritance. England and Holland willingly listened to his proposals in the hope of profiting from rich booty. But the Spanish king had another heir - the Austrian Archduke Charles, who was the grandson of the Spanish king Philip III. Louis hoped, having interested England and Holland, to present a united front with them against the claims of the Habsburgs and thus prevent a possible anti-French coalition. The French ambassadors in London and The Hague convinced the British and Dutch that the accession of the Bourbons or the Habsburgs alone to the throne of Spain would upset the European balance. The French ambassador in Vienna persistently urged the emperor to divide Spain between claimants in the name of preserving European peace. French diplomats have achieved very significant results.
In 1698 and 1700 two agreements were concluded on the division of Spain - both, of course, in secret from the Spanish king Charles II himself. One can easily imagine his indignation when he found out what was happening behind his back. At first, Charles, in defiance of France and the empire, decided to benefit his distant “poor relative” - the Elector of Bavaria - with his inheritance. But that seven-year-old boy died suddenly and for an unknown reason. Then Charles II decided to transfer the entire inheritance, but always in its entirety, to the French prince: he correctly calculated that a French prince at the head of undivided Spain was better than dividing the country.
The king was pushed to this decision by French diplomacy and the Spaniards themselves, for, as the historian Minier said, “the national party hated the Austrians because they had been in Spain for a long time, and loved the French because they had not yet entered Spain.”
On October 2, 1700, Charles II, after consulting with his confessor, theologians, lawyers and the pope himself, signed a will, which after his death transferred Spain with all its possessions in the Old and New Worlds to the grandson of Louis XIV, Duke Philip of Anjou. On November 1 of the same year the king died. Louis XIV found himself faced with two possibilities, created by his own diplomacy and directly opposed to each other. Acceptance of the inheritance meant war with almost all of Europe. Failure to accept it and loyalty to the partition treaties concluded with England, Holland and the emperor could cause a war with Spain, which naturally did not want to be partitioned. In the end, the ambition of the king and his closest advisers, among whom there were no longer any major people of the first half of his reign, prevailed. The words of the Spanish ambassador at the French court that “the Pyrenees have almost collapsed” were picked up and attributed to Louis XIV himself; the king allegedly said: “There are no more Pyrenees!”
Neither England nor Holland intended to fight the French king, preferring peace to the dangers of war and disruption of trade. They were content with the solemn promise of Louis XIV that Spain would never be united with France. But the subsequent behavior of the French government seemed to confirm the worst assumptions. At the beginning of 1701, Louis XIV recognized the rights of Philip V to the French throne with a special charter, introduced French garrisons into the fortresses of the Dutch provinces of Spain and ordered the Spanish governors and viceroys to obey him as their sovereign. Supporters of the war in the Netherlands and England began to reproach Louis XIV for the fact that he obtained their consent to provide him with part of the inheritance, but in fact seized it completely. William began to spread rumors that Louis XIV intended to intervene in English affairs in favor of the Stuarts who had just been expelled from England.
Louis XIV, for his part, seemed to make every effort to make these rumors credible. He visited the former English king James II, who was dying in France, and gave him a solemn promise that he would recognize his son’s royal title, despite his own official recognition by King William III several years earlier. Upon learning of this, the House of Commons voted subsidies for the war. The emperor was even more militant at this time. The international situation seemed to him extremely favorable for delivering a decisive blow to the Bourbons, the centuries-old enemies of the House of Habsburg. The Turkish danger for the emperor had passed: shortly before this, he had made peace with the Turks in Karlowitz in 1699. His diplomatic agitation among the German princes, irritated by the French rule in Germany, was also crowned with success: they expressed their readiness to help the emperor.
Denmark and Sweden also gave a positive response; they have been afraid of French hegemony since the Peace of Westphalia. However, the Great Northern War, which began almost simultaneously with the War of the Spanish Succession, diverted their forces to the northeast, and the emperor did not receive any help from them.
Affairs in Europe were taking a turn unfavorable for France. The coalition of the 80s of the 17th century was restored again, when almost all of Europe was against France. The war that began in 1701 was unsuccessful for France. It took place in four theaters at once: in Italy, Spain, the Netherlands and in Rhine Germany. France's dubious successes in its first period (1702-1704) were followed by years of defeats and severe setbacks. Exhausted by previous wars and uprisings of the Protestant Camisards of the Cevennes Mountains, the country starved during these years and expressed its extreme indignation. In the last period of the war (1710-1714), the French managed to somewhat improve military affairs. This allowed Louis XIV to conclude a peace that was not too humiliating for France.
The second half of the reign of the “Sun King” was poor in outstanding people and military talents. The best forces of the country stood outside the official circles of the brilliant monarchy that had begun to decay. Meanwhile, on the side of her opponents were outstanding diplomats and generals: William III of Orange, the Duke of Marlborough in England and the gifted Austrian commander Prince Eugene of Savoy. Louis XIV now dreamed of only one thing - how to get out of the war with the least losses.
Disagreements and contradictions among his enemies helped. After almost every campaign, the diplomats of Louis XIV tried to establish relations with the Dutch, convincing them that the British were going to seize the East and West Indies, and the Habsburgs, having captured Spain, wanted to restore the empire of Charles V and its former hegemony in Europe. The Dutch only needed to protect themselves from France and continue their trading affairs; therefore, they sought only favorable trade agreements and the establishment of the so-called “barrier”, i.e. the right to maintain garrisons in what is now Belgium, which then belonged to Spain. In general, they were not inclined to continue the costly war.
The British were privateering at sea at this time, managed to capture the key to the Mediterranean Sea - Gibraltar (1704) - and imposed a trade treaty on Portugal (Methuen, 1703), which subordinated Portugal to England economically. Based on the agreement, the British received the right to duty-free import of their manufactured goods into Portugal, which from there flowed into Spain in a stream of smuggling. In America, Boston and New York colonists captured one after another the regions of the new France. But the main costs of the war fell on England; Peaceful sentiments also grew stronger in her. The elections of 1710 produced a Tory majority hostile to the war. The hero of many campaigns, the Duke of Marlborough was accused of embezzlement, which was true. In 1711, Emperor Joseph I died, and his younger brother Charles, a contender for the Spanish throne, was elected to the throne.
Under these conditions, the threat of the restoration of the empire of Charles V and the new flourishing of Central Europe (Germany and Italy), due to which both England and Holland grew, began to seem quite real. The Empire, it seemed, was again ready to “rise from the coffin nailed shut by the Peace of Westphalia.” By 1710, the French protégé Philip V of Spain finally managed to establish himself in his new fatherland. Campaigns of 1711 and 1712 did not lead to an Allied victory.
All these circumstances taken together prompted the British to be the first to extend the hand of peace to the French behind the backs of their allies. Back in January 1711, a secret agent of the English government appeared in France, proposing to conclude a separate peace without the Dutch, “who had lost the favor of the king.” The proposal was accepted. Further negotiations were conducted so secretly that they did not even want to involve official British diplomats in them. The English demands were brought to France by the poet Priar with a note that was marked by Queen Anne herself. In October, England's astonished allies, the Dutch and Germans, read about the terms of peace between England and France, vaguely guessing about the points that concerned them themselves, which, of course, were not published.
In February 1712, a congress was convened in Utrecht. As a result of long negotiations, peace treaties were signed: Utrecht between France and Spain, on the one hand, England, Holland, Brandenburg and Savoy, on the other, on April 11, 1713, and Rastadt between France, Spain and the Empire - on March 7, 1714. Both treaties were of great importance in the history of Europe in the 18th century.
The Bourbons were allowed to remain in Spain, but on the condition that the Spanish king would never be the French king at the same time. For this, Spain had to cede: to the Habsburgs - the Kingdom of Naples, Sardinia, part of Tuscany, the Duchy of Milan and the Spanish Netherlands; to the Elector of Brandenburg - Spanish Geldern (in the Netherlands); to the Duke of Savoy - Sicily; England - Gibraltar and a fortified point on the island of Minorca; England also acquired the “vile asiento”, i.e. exclusive right of trade in negroes granted to an English company.
France paid small pieces of territory to the Habsburgs in the Netherlands, withdrew its troops from Lorraine and ceded minor lands in the south to the Duke of Savoy. France suffered the greatest losses in America. Here she had to give the British the lands around Hudson Bay, New Foundland and Acadia (the lands north of the St. Lawrence River), which had been inhabited by French colonists since the beginning of the 17th century. This was the prelude to the liquidation of French possessions in North America. For England, a period of complete dominance at sea was beginning.
The reign of Louis XIV's successor is a time of decomposition of French absolutism and failures of its foreign policy. The three wars in which Louis XV took part - the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735), the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) - were not to this extent necessary for France so that they could not be avoided, which is why they were called “wars of luxury.” From the point of view of the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, these wars were clearly harmful. The result of the failures of Louis XV was the loss of the American colonies (Canada and Louisiana), which passed to the British and Spaniards, and the failure of French policy in India, which earlier, as a result of the activities of the famous French entrepreneur and colonialist Jean Dupleix, almost became French. France at that time had no shortage of capable ministers and diplomats (Vergennes, Choiseul, d'Argenson), but even the most talented diplomat could not make good the bad policy of the doomed class.
In this summary, the topic of the lesson is “ International relations in the 16th-18th centuries in Europe + table"(7th grade) in the subject "World History". See also Lesson notes on the subject “History of Russia”.
Causes of international conflicts.
First reason . Two points of view on what Europe should be like: 1) The Austrian Habsburgs who ruled the Holy Roman Empire believed that there should be a single empire, headed by a Catholic emperor supported by the Pope (from the Habsburg dynasty, of course), 2) England and France believed that independent nation states should exist in Europe.
The second reason . In the 16th century Europe is split along religious lines into Catholics and Protestants. Catholic countries sought to stop “heresy”; Protestants considered their creed “true”. Religious wars have become on a European scale.
Third reason. Economic contradictions - the struggle for colonies, for markets, for dominance on sea trade routes.
Fourth reason . Lack of clear and consistent policies in some countries. The positions of the French kings changed depending on the interests of domestic politics, their religion and personal sympathies, so they acted either on the side of England or on the side of Spain.
Rivalry between France and Spain for influence over wealthy Italy led to Italian wars(1494-1559). The French, Spanish, Italians and Germans took part in these wars. The result of the war was the virtual subjugation of Italy to the Spanish king.
THIRTY YEARS WAR. Causes
First pan-European war A. This is what historians call the Thirty Years' War ( 1618-1648 ), since it was a war not of two or three powers, but of almost all European countries united in two powerful coalitions.
The war began as religious conflict between German Catholics and Protestants. Austria, German Catholic princes and Spain fought on the side of the Catholics and the Habsburgs. They were opposed by the German Protestant princes, Protestant Denmark and Sweden, as well as Catholic France, which sought to prevent the strengthening of the Habsburg positions in the German principalities bordering on it. Russia also supported the anti-Habsburg camp from the beginning of the conflict.
Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg(1619-1637) set himself the task of eradicating Protestantism and establishing imperial control over the entire European territory.
During the war, the balance of power changed: many German princes went over to one side or the other. Military operations mainly took place on German territory.
Czech period of the 30 Years' War.
The reason for the war was the events in the Czech Republic, which was part of Holy Roman Empire. In 1618, Czech nobles, outraged by religious persecution, threw the royal governors out of the windows of the Czech Chancellery in Prague. This meant a break in relations with Austria. The Czechs, led by Count Thurn, moved to Vienna and in June 1619 took possession of its outskirts.
Ferdinand II, who became in 1619 year emperor, sent a large army against the rebels, which in 1620 completely defeated the Czech army at White Mountain , after which a brutal reprisal was committed against the rebels. The Czech Republic was turned into an Austrian province Bohemia.
Danish period of the 30 Years' War.
The emperor's victory caused alarm Denmark, which had its territorial possessions in Northern Germany. Denmark enters into a coalition with England and Holland and 1625 g. begins military operations.
But the talented commander Albrecht von comes to the aid of Catholics Wallenstein(1583-1634), who, in the absence of money in the treasury, proposed that Ferdinand II create an army of 50 thousand people without any special expenses for the treasury. For this, the emperor appointed him imperial commander-in-chief. Wallenstein's military system was that the army should support itself by robbing the population of the area where it was located. The emperor legalized the robbery of soldiers in the conquered territories.
In 1626, imperial troops defeated the Danes and their German Protestant allies and occupied the territory of the North German states. The dominance of the Catholic Church was restored in these lands. Having lost half his army, the Danish king fled and was then forced to make peace ( 1629 ) and pledged not to interfere in German affairs in the future.
Swedish period of the 30 Years' War.
Swedish king Gustav II Adolf- a passionate Lutheran, wanted to weaken the position of Catholicism and seize the entire Baltic Sea into his own hands, collect trade duties in his favor, and turn the kingdom into a strong Baltic empire.
In 1630, Gustav II Adolf brought to Germany a small but well-organized, regular and professional army, consisting of three branches of troops commanded by career officers. The king's main fighting force was the swift attacks of his cavalry; in addition, he skillfully used light and mobile field artillery.
France and Russia provided assistance to the Swedish king. France, who wanted to weaken the Habsburgs, helped with money. Russia supplied Sweden with cheap bread, hoping with its support to return Smolensk, captured by Poland.
The Swedish king occupied the lands of southern Germany. In November 1632, Swedish troops defeated the emperor's troops at the Battle of Lützen, but King Gustav II Adolf died in a cavalry battle. After the death of their commander, the Swedish troops remained in Germany and turned into the same robbers as the Wallenstein gangs.
End of the 30 Years' War
IN 1634 year, the son of Ferdinand II, the future Emperor Ferdinand III, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Swedes at Nördlingen. France took advantage of this situation and entered into an alliance with Holland and Sweden. In 1635, Louis XIII declared war on Spain, and Cardinal Richelieu sent French troops to Germany.
In 1637, the new emperor of the Holy Roman Empire - Ferdinand III(1608-1657). In 1647, he was almost captured by Swedish partisans. By 1648, French troops had won a number of significant victories, which forced the new emperor to make peace. Ferdinand managed to clear his possessions of soldiers and bandits only in 1654.
Peace of Westphalia.
The war ended in 1648 year with the Peace of Westphalia, which laid the foundations for new relations between states in Europe. Under the terms of the peace treaty, France received Alsace. Sweden was paid an indemnity, but most importantly, it received vast lands in the Baltic, thus consolidating its control over the mouths of the most important navigable rivers in Germany - the Oder, Elbe and Weser. The most important trade routes of Germany were in the hands of the Swedes. The Peace of Westphalia recognized the independence of Holland (United Provinces) from Spain.
The Peace of Westphalia ended the feud between Catholics and Protestants. Were Catholic and Protestant churches are recognized as equal . The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation actually collapsed, but the issue of creating national states on its territory was not resolved. The increased independence of the princes hindered the national unification of Germany.
The balance of power in Europe, based on the Peace of Westphalia, rested on the strengthening of Louis XIV's France and the weakening of the Habsburgs.
War of the Spanish Succession.
The King of Spain died in 1700 Charles II of Habsburg. According to his will, the crown of Spain passed to the grandson of the French king Louis XIV, the Duke Philip of Anjou. However, not a single European country was willing to come to terms with this, fearing an even greater strengthening of France. Great Britain, Holland and other countries started a war that led France to ruin.
Under the terms of the peace treaty of 1714, Philip of Anjou renounced his rights to the French crown. The war weakened both the Bourbons and the Habsburgs, and a new balance of power emerged in Europe. England has strengthened significantly. The opportunities for English colonization of North America also expanded.
Other wars of the 18th century.
North War(1700-1721). Russia, in alliance with Denmark, fought against Sweden. Russia won this war.
War of the Austrian Succession(1740-1748). In 1701, the Holy Roman Emperor allowed the emergence of a new state - the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1740, Emperor Charles VI of Habsburg died, bequeathing all his possessions to his daughter, Maria Theresa. European monarchs did not agree with this decision. The King of Prussia, Frederick II, laid claim to the Austrian inheritance. France, Spain and some of the German princes entered the war against the Habsburg monarchy. Maria Theresa was supported by Great Britain, Holland and Russia.
But under the terms of the peace treaty, Maria Theresa managed to maintain the unity of her territories. Since this war, intense rivalry for primacy among the German states began between the dynasty of Prussian and Austrian kings.
Seven Years' War(1756-1763). In it, Prussia and England fought against Austria, France, Saxony, Russia and Sweden. This war revealed the military power of Russia, whose army inflicted a series of defeats on the considered invincible Prussian army and reached Berlin.
As a result of the Seven Years' War, the European borders did not change, and England received the greatest benefits, to which large French possessions in India and North America (Canada and Louisiana) passed. England, pushing aside France, became the leading colonial and trading power in the world.
Russo-Turkish War(1768-1774). In the XVI-XVII centuries. The Ottoman Empire was a dangerous rival of the European powers, which, as a result of successful military operations in the 16th century. has become a huge state in terms of territory and population.
As a result of French and Polish intrigues, the Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III declared war on Russia in 1768, using the actions of the Russian army in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a pretext.
In 1774, the Ottoman Empire was forced to sign with Russia Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty. As a result of the war, which ended in victory for the Russian Empire, it included lands in Crimea (the rest of Crimea was annexed to Russia 9 years later - in 1783), as well as Azov and Kabarda. The Crimean Khanate formally gained independence under Russian protectorate. Russia received the right to trade and have a navy in the Black Sea.
Lesson summary "".
§ 67. International relations in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
Europe at the beginningXVII century
By the beginning of the 17th century. in Europe the axis of influence of the Austrian dynasty strengthened Habsburgs, whose representatives ruled in the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. The prospect of Spanish-Austrian joint actions concealed the prerequisites for the aggravation of the conflict between the Habsburgs and France. Denmark and Sweden also could not come to terms with the strengthening of the Habsburg Empire. The situation in Europe in the 17th century. complicated by the presence of the Ottoman threat. The entire southeast of Europe and most of Hungary came under Turkish rule.
Thirty Years' War.
A kind of continuation of the religious warriors of the 16th century. became the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). In addition to religious differences between Catholics and Protestants, its causes were the contradictions between the emperor and the princes in Germany, as well as the conflict between France and the Holy Roman Empire and Spain, where the Habsburgs ruled. The ruler of France, Cardinal A. Richelieu, dealt a decisive blow to the Huguenots in his country. However, in Germany he supported the Protestants who fought against the emperor. As a result, the intra-German conflict quickly escalated into a pan-European war. In 1618 in the Czech Republic, where since the Hussite Wars of the 15th century. The Hussites, who were close to the Protestants, occupied strong positions, and an uprising against the emperor began. However, in 131620 the Czechs were defeated, which meant the end of the relative independence of the Czech Republic within the Holy Roman Empire. In 1629, Denmark was defeated, having entered into war with the emperor at the call of the Protestant princes of Germany.
Then Sweden, helped by France and Russia, is drawn into the war. Swedish king Gustav II Adolf won several victories over the emperor's troops, but died in 1632. In 1635, France openly began a war against the Holy Roman Emperor and Spain. The French and Swedes in the 40s. XVII century They defeated Catholic armies several times. During many years of conflicts, all parties were guided by the principle “War feeds war” and mercilessly plundered the civilian population, which led to the terrible devastation of Germany.
In 1648, two peace treaties were concluded in Westphalia.
Sweden and France received increments at the expense of the Holy Roman Empire. According to the Peace of Westphalia, Sweden took possession of almost the entire southern coast of the Baltic Sea, becoming one of the strongest states in Europe. The Peace of Westphalia formalized the political fragmentation of Germany, in which the power of the emperor was reduced to zero and the princes became independent sovereigns. Spain finally recognized Dutch independence.
International relations in the second half of XVII-XVIII centuries
Second half of the 17th century. became a period of strengthening of France in Europe. This was facilitated by the situation in other countries. Spain and the Holy Roman Empire were in crisis after the devastating Thirty Years' War. After the restoration, England was ruled by cousins of the French king Louis XIV, dependent on him. Since 1672, Louis XIV waged wars to expand his possessions. The first two wars with Spain were successful, although it was not possible to annex the completely Spanish Netherlands to France, as its king dreamed of. A number of border regions went to France. In 1681, taking advantage of the attack on Vienna by the Turks, whom he supported and set against Christian countries, Louis XIV captured Strasbourg. But that was where his success ended.
France's war of 1688-1697 with all European countries ended in vain. The French economy was undermined by continuous wars. Meanwhile, England was strengthening. During the three Anglo-Dutch wars, in which England was supported by France, she managed to push out her main competitor everywhere at sea and in the colonies. England's colonial possessions grew rapidly. After the “glorious revolution” of 1689, the ruler of Holland, William of Orange, came to power in England. The situation in Europe has changed dramatically.
Wars of the 18th century
The last Spanish king from the Habsburg dynasty was childless. According to his will, he transferred his possessions to his closest relative - the grandson of Louis XIV. The prospect of a unification of France and Spain arose. All of France's neighbors opposed this. The war broke out in 1701. Everywhere French and Spanish troops suffered defeats. The French economy was further undermined. Only disagreements between enemies prevented the onset of complete disaster for her. In 1713-1714 Treaties were concluded under which Louis' grandson remained king of Spain, but the unification of the two countries was forever prohibited. France lost some of its colonies in America. The Netherlands and Spanish possessions in Italy passed to the Austrian Habsburgs.
In 1700 - 1721 The Northern War was going on, which undermined the power of Sweden. Russia won the Northern War and became one of the great powers.
In 1740, the War of the Austrian Succession broke out. King Frederick 11 of Prussia captured Silesia from Austria. Austria was supported by England, Russia and other countries. The rest of Austria's possessions were defended.
Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763 was the result of a sharp tangle of contradictions. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in America and Asia, which is why the Seven Years' War is called the prototype of the World War. In Europe, France, Austria, Russia and a number of German states fought with Prussia, led by Frederick N. and its allies from among other German states. England helped Prussia, but did not fight directly in Europe. She, in alliance with Spain, captured all French possessions in America (Canada and Louisiana) and India. Prussia was defeated by Russia, France also captured all the possessions of the English king in Europe. However, these victories were devalued after Peter III came to power and Russia left the war. Borders in Europe, unlike other continents, have remained unchanged.
§ 68. International relations in the 19th century.
The beginning of the French conquests.
During the Great French Revolution and wars with counter-revolutionaries and monarchical states, a powerful revolutionary army was created in France. This predetermined the international situation in Europe for a long time. It became the basis for French successes in a long series of wars that began in 1792.
After the victories of 1793 - 1794. Belgium and the German lands along the left bank of the Rhine were annexed to France, Holland was turned into a dependent republic. The annexed regions were treated as conquered territories. Various taxes were imposed on them, and the best works of art were taken away. During the years of the Directory (1795 -1799), France sought to ensure its dominance in Central Europe and Italy. Italy was considered a source of food and money and a convenient path to conquest in the future of the colonies in the East. In 1796-1798 general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy. In 1798, he began a campaign in Egypt, which belonged to the Ottoman Empire. France's seizure of Egypt threatened England's colonies in India. The fighting in Egypt went well for the French, but the English rear admiral G. Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of Aboukir. The French army was trapped and eventually destroyed. Bonaparte himself, abandoning her, fled to France, where he seized power, becoming Emperor Napoleon in 1804. The establishment of Napoleon's power was facilitated by the defeat of France in Italy from coalition forces consisting of Russia, England, Austria and Sardinia in 1798 -1799. The Allied forces in Italy were led by A.V. Suvorov. However, due to the short-sighted policies of Austria and England, Emperor Paul 1 of Russia left the coalition. After this, Bonaparte easily defeated Austria.
Napoleonic Wars.
Soon after Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, wars of conquest resumed in order to solve internal problems by plundering neighbors.
At Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), Friedland (1807), Wagram (1809), Napoleon defeats the armies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, which fought with France as part of the third, fourth and fifth coalitions. True, in the war at sea the French suffered defeats from England (especially at Trafalgar in 1805), which thwarted Napoleon’s plans to land in Britain. During the Napoleonic Wars, Belgium, Holland, part of Germany west of the Rhine, part of Northern and Central Italy, and Illyria were annexed to France. Most other European countries became dependent on it.
Since 1806, a Continental blockade was established against England. Napoleonic rule contributed to the destruction of feudal orders, but national humiliation and extortion from the population led to an intensification of the liberation struggle. A guerrilla war is unfolding in Spain. Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600,000-strong “grand army.” In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia and Austria came over to their side. Napoleon was defeated. In 1814, the Allies entered French territory and occupied Paris.
After Napoleon's exile to the island of Elba and the restoration of royal power in France in the person of Louis XVIII The heads of state - allies in the anti-French coalition gathered in Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war world. The meetings of the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by the news of Napoleon's return to power in 1815 (“Hundred Days”). June 18, 1815 Anglo-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command of A. Wellington and G. L. Blucher The troops of the French emperor were defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.
Vienna system.
By decision of the Congress of Vienna, Russia (part of Poland), Austria (part of Italy and Dalmatia), and Prussia (part of Saxony, the Rhineland) received territorial increments. The southern Netherlands became part of Holland (until 1830, when Belgium was formed as a result of the revolution). England received the Dutch colonies - Ceylon, South Africa. 39 German states united into the German Confederation, maintaining their complete independence.
Peace and tranquility in Europe was intended to be maintained by all states, which was actually headed by the leading powers of the continent - Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and France. This is how the Vienna system came into being. Despite the contradictions between powers and revolutions in a number of countries, the Vienna system generally maintained stability in Europe until the early 50s. XIX century
Monarchs of European countries, united in the so-called Holy Alliance, gathered until 1822 for congresses, where they discussed measures to maintain peace and stability on the continent. Based on the decisions of these congresses, interventions took place in countries where revolutions began. The Austrian invasion extinguished the revolution in Naples and Piedmont, France intervened in the revolutionary events in Spain. An invasion of Latin America was also being prepared to suppress the national liberation struggle there. But England did not benefit from the appearance of the French in Latin America, and it turned to the United States for help. In 1823, US President Monroe spoke out in defense of the entire American continent from Europeans. At the same time, this was the first US bid for control over all of America.
The 1822 Congress of Verona and the invasion of Spain were the last common actions of the members of the Holy Alliance. England's recognition in 1824 of the independence of Latin American countries, former Spanish colonies, finally undermined the unity of the Holy Alliance. In 1825-1826 Russia changed its attitude towards the uprising in Greece against Turkey, providing support to the Greeks, while Austria's position on this issue remained sharply negative. The ever-expanding liberal movement in the European powers, the development of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in all countries, shook the Holy Alliance to its foundations.
International relations in the second half of the 19th century.
The Vienna system finally collapsed after the revolutions of 1848 -1849. Increasing contradictions between Russia, on the one hand, and England and France, on the other, led to the Eastern (Crimean) War of 1853-1856. Russia was defeated by a coalition of England, France, Turkey and the Kingdom of Sardinia, which were openly supported by Austria and covertly by Prussia. As a result of the war, Russia's position in the Black Sea was shaken.
France became one of the leading European powers. Emperor Napoleon III of France helped Italy in its war against the Austrian Empire. For this, Italy lost Savoy and Nice. Preparations began for France to capture the left bank of the Rhine. Prussia began to prepare for wars for the unification of Germany. During the Franco-Prussian (Franco-German) war of 1870-1871. Napoleon III suffered a crushing defeat. Alsace and Lorraine went to a united Germany.
At the end of the 19th century. The contradictions between the powers became even more acute. Colonial rivalry between the great powers especially intensified. The most acute contradictions were between England, France and Germany.
On May 20, 1882, a secret treaty was signed between Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary, according to which Germany and Austria-Hungary undertook to support Italy in the event of an attack on the latter by France, and Italy assumed the same obligation against Germany. All three powers pledged to go to war with the attacking states. Italy, however, stipulated that in the event of an attack by England on Germany or Austria-Hungary, it would not provide assistance to the allies. With the signing of this agreement, Triple Alliance.
At the beginning of 1887, it seemed that war between France and Germany was inevitable, but the latter had to abandon it, since Russia was ready to help France.
The Franco-German military alarm coincided with the worsening of relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary. As soon as the Austro-German-Russian neutrality treaty expired, Russia did not want to re-enter it with the participation of Austria-Hungary. Germany decided to enter into a bilateral agreement with Russia - the so-called “reinsurance agreement”. According to the treaty, both sides were obliged to maintain neutrality in the event of war between either side and the other power. At the same time, Germany pursued a policy of aggravating relations with Russia. But this led to a rapprochement between Russia and France, Germany’s main enemy.
France's gaze turned to Russia. The volume of foreign trade between the two countries has continuously increased. Significant French investments in Russia and large loans provided by French banks contributed to the rapprochement of the two states. Germany's hostility towards Russia was also becoming more and more clear. In August 1891, a treaty was concluded between France and Russia, and a year later a military convention was concluded. In 1893 the union was finally formalized.
England's bitter struggle with France and Russia supported the desires of some of its ruling circles to come to an agreement with Germany. The British government twice tried to buy the Axis support for Germany with the promise of colonial compensation, but the German government asked such a price that England refused this deal. In 1904-1907 An agreement was drawn up between England and France and Russia, which was called the “Triple Entente” - the Entente (translated from French as “cordial agreement”). Europe was finally divided into hostile military blocs.
Questions and tasks
1. What are Great Geographical Discoveries? What are their reasons?
Tell us about your main discoveries. What were their consequences?
2. What changes took place in the economies of leading countries in the 16th-18th centuries? What inventions contributed to these changes?
3. What is Renaissance? What were his main ideas? What were the achievements of the Renaissance figures?
4. What were the reasons for the Reformation? What movements were there in the Reformation?
How did the Catholic Church fight the Reformation? What are the consequences of the Reformation?
5. What is absolutism and what are the reasons for its occurrence? What are the features of absolutism in different countries?
6. Why did the English Revolution happen? Describe its course and consequences.
7. How did the USA come into being? What is the significance of this event?
8. What are the causes of the French Revolution? Tell us about its course and the forces involved in it. Why do they talk about the world-historical significance of this revolution?
9. Describe the main styles and tell us about the main achievements of Western European culture in the 17th-18th centuries.
10. What is the Age of Enlightenment?
11. List the reforms carried out in Russia in the middle of the 16th century?
What are their results?
12. What is oprichnina? What is its meaning and consequences?
13. How did the enslavement of peasants take place in Russia?
14. What is the Time of Troubles? List the main events of this period. What made it possible to defend Russia's independence?
15. How did the Russian economy develop in the 17th century? What new appeared in the economy then?
16. What was the significance of the development of Siberia?
17. What changes in public administration took place in Russia in the 17th century?
18. Describe the popular uprisings of the 17th century.
19. Tell us about Russian foreign policy in the 17th century.
20. What changes took place in the internal life of Russia and its international position during the reign of Peter 1?
21. Give a description of Peter the Great.
22. What is the era of palace coups? How did the Russian economy and social system develop during this era?
23. Tell us about the main events of domestic and foreign policy during the era of palace coups.
24. What is “enlightened absolutism”?
25. How did the economy and social sphere develop during the reign of Catherine II?
26. What are the reasons for the peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev?
27. What are the achievements of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century? What are the reasons for the victories of Russian weapons?
28. What are the main achievements of Russian culture in the 16th - 18th centuries?
29. What were the features of the development of the Ottoman Empire?
Taya, India in the 16th - 18th centuries?
30. How did the colonial expansion of Europeans take place in the 16th-18th centuries?
31. What is the industrial revolution? How did the economies of advanced countries develop in the 19th century?
32. What changes in the political life of European countries and the USA occurred in the 19th century? What socialist doctrines arose during this period? What is the essence of Marxism?
33. What are the main achievements of European culture in the 19th century?
34. Tell us about the main events of Russian domestic and foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. Why did Russia defeat Napoleon?
35. What are the reasons and goals of the Decembrist movement? What is its significance?
36. Reveal the main directions of Nicholas’s domestic and foreign policy 1. Why was Russia defeated in the Crimean War?
37. What are the main directions of social thought in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century?
38. Describe the main reforms carried out in Russia in the 60s and 70s.
XIX century What are their causes and significance? What are counter-reforms? .
39. Tell us about the social movement during the reign of Alexander P.
What is populism and what is its significance?
40. What are the achievements of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century?
41. What was the flowering of Russian culture in the 19th century?
