Table of sciences studying the human body. Sciences about the human body. Why did the Renaissance get its name?
Questions at the beginning of the paragraph.
Question 1. What do you know about ancient Greco-Roman culture?
The ancient Greco-Roman culture went down in history under the name “Antiquity”. This is the heyday of the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Much attention was paid to man and his place in nature.
Question 2. What names is she associated with?
Man, being the crown of nature, was actively studied by ancient scientists, among whom Hippocrates, Aristotle, Heraclitus and others should be highlighted.
Question 3. Why did the Renaissance get its name?
The Renaissance was a striking manifestation of the secular principle in Christianity. The Renaissance extended its influence primarily to the spiritual areas of human activity. The picture of the world is changing. The entire culture of the Renaissance is the creation of some kind of gigantic pedestal for the divine greatness of man, who realized himself as the creator of his own destiny and co-creator of the surrounding world. The ancient education system is being revived, humanities disciplines are being formed, that is, focused on the problems of man and humanity.
Questions at the end of the paragraph.
Question 1. How did Heraclitus imagine the processes occurring in nature?
Heraclitus believed that the world is constantly changing, that the origin of all things is fire, an element that seemed to the ancient Greeks to be thinner, lighter and more mobile. All things arise from fire by the method of condensation and return to it by the method of rarefaction. This world fire “flares up and goes out in different ways,” while the world, according to Heraclitus, was not created by any of the gods or people. Heraclitus considered life and death, day and night, good and evil to be one. Opposites, in his opinion, are in an endless struggle, so that “discord is the father of everything, the king of everything,” while at the same time there is a “hidden harmony” in space. And this fact is confirmed by his catchphrase: “You cannot enter the same river twice!”
Question 2. Which scientist owns the term “organism”? What property of living nature was noted in this name?
The term "organism" belongs to Aristotle. He drew attention to the fact that any living creature differs from inanimate bodies by a clear and strict organization.
Question 3. How did Aristotle solve the problem of soul and body?
Aristotle was the first thinker to understand that a person’s mental activity is a property of his body and exists as long as the body lives. Mental activity is associated with the ability of the brain to receive, process and store information to meet the needs of the body.
Question 4. Which of the ancient philosophers first became interested in the problems of hygiene and health care?
Hippocrates first became interested in the problems of hygiene and health protection. He began to study the influence of natural factors on people’s health: water, air, food, and the land on which food is grown. He even identified a number of diseases for which people themselves are to blame.
Question 5. What contributions did Vesalius and Harvey make to the science of blood circulation?
Andreas Vesalius accurately described and, with the help of student artists, depicted the internal organs of the human body and the skeleton. He was the first to establish that the left and right ventricles of the human heart do not communicate with each other.
William Harvey discovered two circles of blood circulation: large and small. He also pioneered the use of experimental methods to study and solve physiological problems.
Question 6. How did technological advances affect the development of anatomy, physiology and medicine?
The development of science and technology has made a great contribution to the development of anatomy, physiology and medicine. With the invention of the optical and then the electron microscope, the study of the structure of cells and tissues of the body began. The creation of electronic devices made it possible to establish the nature of the nerve impulse - an electro-chemical signal that transmits information through nerve communication channels. Physicians and chemists have developed a number of drugs and antibiotics that can overcome many diseases.
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D. V. Kolesov, R. D. Mash, I. N. Belyaev
Biology. Human. 8th grade
How to use the textbook
Before you start studying the course, get acquainted with its content and structure according to the table of contents, understand the structure of the paragraph.
Before you start reading the text of the paragraph, become familiar with the questions after its title and remember the teacher’s explanations in class. Then read the text, answer the questions and complete the tasks. If you have any difficulties, check the material in the text of the textbook.
The textbook provides materials for conducting experiments and observations, laboratory work, experiments and functional tests, describes the most dangerous diseases and injuries, as well as first aid measures. Many tasks can be used to train attention, memory, and observation skills.
Additional material is in small print. At the end of each chapter, a brief summary of the studied material is given under the heading “Main provisions of the chapter.”
As you work through the textbook, constantly evaluate your progress. Are you satisfied with them? What new things do you learn when studying a new topic? How can this knowledge be useful to you in everyday life? If you find some material difficult, ask your teacher for help or use reference books and Internet resources. Additional information on course topics can be found on the websites: http://school-collection.edu.ru/catalog/ (Unified Collection of Digital Educational Resources), http://gigiena-center.ru/ (Center for Hygiene and Epidemiology), http://medicinform.net/ (Medical information network), http://www.medkurs.ru/history/ (History of medicine), http://sbio.info/ (Modern biology, scientific reviews, science news), http://humbio.ru/ (Knowledge base on human biology).
The material from these sites will also be useful for your design and research activities. We offer you approximate project topics.
1. An environmentally literate consumer of goods: packaging, barcodes, food additive indexes, labels on clothing, etc.
2. Determination of the content of essential vitamins in the daily diet, comparison with standards.
3. Determination of the amount of mineral salts in the daily diet, comparison with standards.
4. Determination of nitrates in food products.
5. Preparation of food rations depending on the body’s energy consumption.
6. Determination of individual average daily consumption of proteins, fats, carbohydrates (including by meals), comparison with standards.
7. Study of the dependence of breathing frequency on the state of the body.
8. Skin: typing, care, age-related changes, diseases, improvement of condition.
9. Assessing your own lifestyle: habits, health, degree of physical fitness, proper nutrition.
10. Determination of memory capacity, attention span.
11. Development and conduct of a sociological survey of different groups of the population on the problem of their attitude towards their own health.
12. Biorhythms as the basis for the rational organization of human order. Determination of individual rhythm of performance.
13. Drawing up rational daily routines for people of different age groups.
We wish you success in studying biology!
Introduction
Man among living beings. Like all living organisms, a person is born and dies, eats and breathes, and reproduces. His body has a cellular structure, and each cell consists of many complex and simple molecules, among which molecules of organic substances are of great importance.
Water, food, oxygen, comfortable environmental temperature, safety are the natural needs of every living being, including humans. These needs are often called basic, vital.
All humanity belongs to a single biological species - Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens), but this species is significantly different from all others. A person has consciousness and is capable of work. Labor activity made it possible to greatly expand the food supply, create clothing, housing, and improve everyday life. The use of coal, oil, electricity and other types of energy made it possible not only to provide people with heat and hot food, but also to create modern transport. Oral speech, which arose at the beginning of human history, was later supplemented by the invention of writing, sound and video recording, telephone, and television. Advances in medicine have made many diseases disappear.
It is clear that one person cannot cope with all this complex management. He performs only a small part of the total work, receiving compensation for his work. This allows him to use what was created by the work of other people. The distribution of public goods determines a person's standard of living.
Improving living conditions increased its duration (on average from 25 to 70 years). But the successes of civilization have brought with them numerous costs: atmospheric pollution, the emergence of food products containing nitrates and other harmful substances. In addition, not all people lead a healthy lifestyle: their health is harmed by lack of physical activity, tobacco, alcohol, and drugs. As a result, every person is faced with the problem of choice: how to live correctly in order to maintain health and performance as long as possible. In order to solve it, you need to know how our body works, how it functions, what is useful for it and what is harmful. Our course will try to answer these questions.
Chapter 1. Sciences that study the human body
In this chapter you will learn
On the development of sciences that study human nature and the protection of his health;
On the methods of anatomy, physiology, psychology and hygiene.
You will learn
Use scientific methods to solve emerging problems;
If necessary, select the necessary specialists for consultation.
§ 1. Sciences about man. Health and its protection
1. How do they study the structure and functions of the human body?
2. Why do animal experiments allow us to better understand the functions of the human body?
3. What is psychology?
human anatomy studies the structure of the human body and its organs. The name of this science comes from the Latin word “anatome” - “dissection”. Autopsy of deceased people is the most ancient method of studying the structure of the human body.
However, at present, the structure of the body can be studied in vivo. Fluoroscopy, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging and many other methods make it possible not only to study the structure of organs in detail, but also to detect the slightest deviations in their condition, which is necessary when diagnosing diseases (Fig. 1).
Anatomy studies not only the internal structure of a person, but also his external features: height, weight, body proportions, body type.
Anatomical names are the same for all countries. They are given in the national and Latin languages. The use of Latin names is provided for by the International Anatomical Nomenclature.
Organs on the tables of an anatomical atlas are usually drawn as they are located in a person facing us. Therefore, the organs located on the right side of a person are shown on the left in the pictures, that is, in a mirror image. Accordingly, the organs located on the left side of a person are depicted on the table on the right side.
Human physiology- a science that studies the functions of the human body and its organs. Its name comes from the Greek word “physis” - “nature”. Physiological methods are based on observations of healthy and sick people and experiments on animals.
Laboratory methods for studying blood, saliva, urine and other substances formed in the process of life are being improved.
Modern devices make it possible to judge the functioning of the heart, brain, blood vessels and other organs by the electrical activity of organs and carry out measurements, bringing physiology closer to the exact sciences.
An electroencephalograph allows you to evaluate the electrical activity of various parts of the brain.
Rice. 1. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain (A) and knee joint (B)
Along with complex instrumental methods, there are also simpler ones that allow one to assess a person’s performance and fitness. These are functional tests. A person is given a dosed load, for example, to sit down 20 times. At the same time, changes in the functioning of his heart muscle are recorded. Knowing the norm, each person can determine whether his personal indicators correspond to it.
Psychology– a science that studies the general patterns of mental processes and individual personal properties of a person. Its name comes from the Greek word “psycho” - “soul”. Each person reflects the phenomena of the external world in his own way and determines their value depending on his individual needs. Everyone has their own subjective(specific to him alone) inner world. Everyone builds their relationships with other people according to their beliefs, determines their own actions and evaluates them. All this complex work constitutes the mental activity of man, his psyche. It includes perception, representation, thinking, memory, will, feelings, experiences and individual characteristics of people: character, abilities, interests.
Psychology uses methods inherent in any science: observations, experiments, measurements. It is also important introspection, since only the person himself can tell about his own experiences. Self-observation – subjective research method. But if different people describe their thoughts and experiences in the same way, we can conclude that there is a certain pattern.
Hygiene(from the Greek "hygienos" - healthy) - a branch of medicine that studies the influence of the natural environment, work and everyday life on the human body in order to develop measures for protecting people's health.
There are various branches of hygiene, such as school hygiene, industrial hygiene, agricultural hygiene, etc. Like other sciences, hygiene uses observation, measurement, experimentation, as well as modeling and statistics.
The study of environmental factors requires the use physical, chemical And biological methods: determine the temperature and composition of water and air, the chemical composition of soil, food, things and buildings, the level of radiation, the degree of contamination of various objects.
Physiological hygiene observations allow us to determine how a person adapts to certain environmental factors. This information is needed to create protective equipment and develop training methods that allow you to quickly adapt to unfavorable conditions.
Clinical hygiene observations identify the causes of diseases common to many people. Thus, studies by dentists have led to the conclusion that rapid tooth decay may be associated with a lack of fluoride in drinking water. As a result of these studies, a special fluoride toothpaste was developed.
Based on the methods listed above, sanitary standards necessary for a healthy lifestyle of people and safe conditions for their activities are developed. In every more or less large settlement there are sanitary and epidemiological stations (SES) that monitor compliance with these standards.
Health and its protection. One of the most important values of a person is his health. According to the World Health Organization definition, health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not just the absence of disease. Many people believe that protecting their health is the task of medicine. However, no modern achievements will restore health if a person does not learn to maintain it himself. Every person should be able to take care of their health.
In order to be healthy and feel good, you need to follow certain rules. By studying the structure and functioning of human organs, you will become familiar with them. The most important factors that maintain health, are physical activity and hardening of the body. Following a daily routine and proper alternation of work and rest allow the body to intelligently distribute and restore its strength. A balanced, high-quality diet is an important factor in maintaining health. Our health is strengthened by following the rules of hygiene, cleanliness of the body, clothes and premises. An important health-saving method is auto-training– a way to restore emotional balance, a special technique of self-hypnosis combined with muscle relaxation. Auto-training helps to quickly relieve excessive neuromuscular tension, anxiety, neuroses, headaches, allows you to manage your mood, mobilize all your mental and physical strength to achieve your goal.
Factors affecting health they are called differently risk factors,– these are infections and poisonings, hypothermia and overheating of the body, lack of exercise, unhealthy diet, injuries, alcohol consumption and smoking. To maintain health, you must completely abandon all bad habits.
A person’s physical condition also largely depends on his mental state, on his ability to overcome conflict situations and form harmonious relationships with other people.
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, HYGIENE; HEALTH, FACTORS PRESERVING HEALTH; RISK FACTORS.
Tasks
1. Compose and fill out the table “Sciences that study man.” To fill out the “Subject of Study” column, use the wording options below:
a) the structure of a person and his organs;
b) functions of the human body;
c) human spiritual activity;
d) the influence of the natural environment, life and work on human health in order to protect public health.
2. Using additional literature and Internet resources, prepare a message or presentation about modern methods of human research.
3. Together with your teacher and classmates, organize an excursion to the local SES. Prepare questions that you would like answered during this excursion. Write a report.
4. Explain why factors that impair health are called risk factors.
§ 2. The formation of human sciences
1. What do you know about ancient Greco-Roman culture?
2. What names is she associated with?
3. Why did the Renaissance get its name?
People have always been interested in the problems of life and death, ways to combat illnesses, maintaining health and longevity, the difference between living and nonliving things. At first it was believed that human health, his actions, life and death were controlled by the gods. But already at the turn of the 6th and 5th centuries. BC e. The Greek thinker Heraclitus (late 6th - early 5th century BC) expressed the idea that organisms develop according to the laws of nature and, having learned them, one can use these laws for the benefit of people. Heraclitus believed that the world is constantly changing. He owns the catchphrase: “You cannot step into the same river twice!”
The great Greek thinker Aristotle (384–322 BC) spent many years comparing animal and human organs and studying their development. He drew attention to the fact that any living creature differs from inanimate bodies in its clear and strict organization. It was he who coined the term “organism,” which comes from the word “organization.”
Aristotle was the first thinker to understand that a person’s mental activity is a property of his body and exists as long as the body lives. Now we know that mental activity is associated with the ability of the brain to receive, process and use information to meet the needs of the body. The life of any creature is impossible without information about the state of the environment.
The famous physician of Antiquity, Hippocrates (c. 460 - c. 377 BC), did a lot for the development of medicine and hygiene. He was one of the first to study the influence of natural factors on human health: water, food, land on which food is grown, temperature and air humidity. He managed to find the causes of diseases for which people themselves are to blame.
The successor of Hippocrates' ideas was the famous Roman physician Claudius Galen (130–200 AD). He dissected domestic and wild animals and carefully described their organs. Having studied in detail the structure of the bones, muscles and joints of the monkey, Galen suggested that humans are structured in a similar way. Galen wrote many works on the functions of organs.
The Study of Man in the Renaissance. The ideology that developed in the Middle Ages contributed little to the development of science. The awakening began only in the 14th–17th centuries. n. e. This period went down in history as the Renaissance. A great contribution to the study of man was made by the great Italian artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). He carefully studied, described and sketched the structure of the human body. At the same time, he depicted each part of it from different sides, which made it possible to perceive the organ from different angles (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Anatomical drawings by Leonardo da Vinci
Anatomical drawings were also performed by another great Italian artist, Raphael Santi (1483–1520). He believed that in order to correctly depict a person, one must know the location of the bones of his skeleton in a particular pose.
A major contribution to medical science was made by the Belgian Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), who studied in France and taught in Italy. He accurately described and, with the help of student artists, depicted the internal organs of the human body and skeleton (Fig. 3). In particular, he found that the left and right ventricles of the human heart do not communicate with each other.
Rice. 3. Skeleton of a standing man (from the work of Vesalius)
However, a decisive contribution to the understanding of the basic laws of blood movement was made by the English scientist William Harvey (1587–1657), who discovered two circles of blood circulation: the small and large.
Harvey's merit also lay in the fact that he was the first to apply experimental methods to solve physiological problems.
The discovery of the reflex made by the French philosopher René Descartes in the first half of the 17th century was of great importance for the development of physiology. Subsequently, it was developed through the works of Russian scientists Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829–1905) and Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936).
Development of anatomy, physiology and hygiene since the beginning of the 19th century. to the present day. This period was marked by great discoveries. The invention of the optical and then electron microscope made it possible to study the structure of cells and tissues at the submolecular level; the creation of electronic devices made it possible to establish the nature of the nerve impulse - a signal transmitting information through nerve communication channels; penetrate the secrets of the brain. The successes of experimental hygiene made it possible to find reliable methods of combating infectious diseases and eradicating many of them.
Doctors and chemists managed to develop a whole class of effective drugs, including antibiotics, and defeat many dangerous diseases. Advances in the field of immunology - the science of the body's defenses - have made it possible to create effective preventive vaccinations against a number of dangerous infectious diseases. A great contribution to the development of the science of immunity was made by the French scientist Louis Pasteur and our compatriot Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov. Thanks to the development of immunology and surgical technology, organ transplant operations became possible.
HERACLITUS, ARISTOTLE, HIPPOCRATES, CLAUDIUS GALEN, LEONARDO DA VINCI, RAFAEL SANTI, ANDREAS VESALIUS, WILLIAM HARVEY, LOUIS PASTER, ILYA MECHNIKOV.
Questions
1. How did Heraclitus imagine the processes occurring in nature?
2. Which scientist owns the term “organism”? What property of living nature was noted in this name?
3. How did Aristotle solve the problem of soul and body?
4. Which of the ancient philosophers first became interested in the problems of hygiene and health care?
5. How can you explain that the Middle Ages were a period of stagnation in the study of man, his structure and characteristics of life?
6. What contributions did Vesalius and Harvey make to the science of blood circulation?
7. How did technological advances affect the development of anatomy, physiology and medicine?
Tasks
1. Systematize the knowledge gained from this paragraph. Make and fill out the table “Scientists and their achievements in the study of man.”
2. Using additional literature and Internet resources, prepare a message or presentation about modern achievements in medicine or pharmacology - the science of medicinal substances and their effects on the body.
The main provisions of Chapter 1
The structure of the body and organs is studied by anatomy, functions - physiology, general patterns of mental processes, individual personal properties and human behavior - psychology. Hygiene studies the influence of natural conditions, work and everyday life on the body. She develops methods for protecting and maintaining health.
Human health is one of the most important values. According to the WHO definition, health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
The most important factors that maintain health are physical activity, hardening the body, adherence to a daily routine and hygiene rules, and a balanced, high-quality diet.
Factors that impair health, or risk factors, are infections and poisoning, hypothermia and overheating of the body, lack of exercise, poor diet, and bad habits.
The sciences of the structure and functions of the human body arose in ancient times in connection with the needs of medicine. They were successfully developed in the works of Aristotle, Hippocrates, Vesalius, and Harvey. The development of these sciences today is largely related to the improvement of technology.
1. Formulate several questions that you want answered when studying this topic.
Answer: What sciences study the human body? How does the human body differ from the body of other living beings? How does the human body work, what are its features? Where did the first man on earth come from?
2. Read the textbook "Introduction". Write down the similarities between the human body and other organisms in the left column of the table, and the differences in the right column.
3. Think about what benefits civilization gives people, what negative consequences and costs it has brought. Record your findings in a table. Compare them with the views of the authors of the “Introduction” article.
4. Read § 1 of the textbook. In the left column of the table, write down the names of the biological sciences about humans, in the right - the methods that are used in them for research.
5. Read § 2. In the table, enter the names of two ancient thinkers and two scientists of the Renaissance and indicate their contribution to science.
Answer: I learned about the sciences that study the human body, and about the scientists who contributed to the development of these sciences. In addition to the fact that this knowledge will be useful for my general development, it will help me in life. For example, knowing the simplest rules of hygiene can protect yourself from many diseases. Knowledge in the field of anatomy and physiology will help me better understand my body, and in the field of psychology - myself and the people around me.
7. Solve crossword number 1
1.Anatomy - (Greek anatome - “dissection”) - the science of the structure of the body and its organs.
Anatomy Methods :
Autopsy of a dead body and examination of its organs.
In ancient times, opening a human body was considered a great sin and was prohibited.
It was only during the Renaissance that scientists were allowed to dissect the bodies of executed criminals.
-methods of intravital research: X-ray, ultrasound (US), modeling of organ function (including computer) and others.
2.Physiology - the science of the functions of the body and its organs.
Organ function- its' his job.
The structure of organs and their functions are closely related to each other. To be convinced of this, just look at your own hand. Why are there folds against each joint and fingers on the back of the hand and why do they straighten out when the hand is clenched into a fist? It is not difficult to answer: if there were no folds, it would be impossible to bend the finger - the skin would stretch and make this movement difficult.
Physiology methods:
A.Experiment - experience, artificial reproduction/modeling of a phenomenon under certain conditions for the purpose of research/study.
Chronic experiments- these are long-term experiments on living animals - For example, holes were made in the stomach and skin and these holes were connected with a tube. Thanks to this, the contents of the stomach could be obtained at any time. To do this, it was necessary to remove the plug that closed the tube that carried the contents of the stomach out. In this way, it was possible to study not only the functioning of the organ, but also its regulation.
Studying the functioning of animal organs (+ setting up an experiment) and transferring/extrapolating the obtained data to humans because similar organs of animals and humans perform similar functions Thanks to experimental animals - frogs, guinea pigs, dogs and monkeys - it was possible to find out what functions each organ performs.
B. Study of the work of any human and animal organ using devices : An electrocardiogram allows you to accurately analyze the heartbeat and, if necessary, prescribe treatment.
IN.Laboratory research methods: blood analysis (general and biochemical) and other biological fluids.
G.Instrumental research methods.
3. Hygiene(from ancient Greek “health”) - an area/section of medicine that studies influenceconditions life, work with the aim ofcreating optimal conditions for existence (maintaining health, performance, longevity) + developing prevention various diseases.
→Hygiene, along with sanitation and epidemiology, is one of the areas preventive medicine.
The main branches of the science of Hygiene: general hygiene (hygiene propaedeutics), communal hygiene, occupational hygiene, food hygiene, hygiene of children and adolescents, radiation hygiene, military hygiene, etc.
Hygiene methods:
-clinical - finding out the causes of mass diseases,
- physiological - establishing the adaptive capabilities of the body to unfavorable conditions of the natural and social environment,
-laboratory - analysis of environmental factors (analysis of air water samples, etc.).
Factors affecting the body :
Physical- noise, vibration, electromagnetic and radioactive radiation, climate, etc.
Chemical- chemical elements and their compounds.
For each of these factors hygienists are developing MPC (maximum permissible concentrations of substances),the excess of which in the atmosphere, water, products, soil or things may be harmful to human health, A sanitary doctors monitor compliance with these standards (so if something is wrong in our home or at work, we immediately report it to SESsanitary doctors).
Thus, the maximum permissible concentration of chlorine in tap water is 0.5 mg/l. This means that water is completely safe if the content of chlorine and its compounds does not exceed 0.5 mg per liter.
Hygiene Recommendations are developing doctors - hygienists: find out whether there are harmful radiations, whether the air, water, food, soil are dangerous to human health; monitor the condition of wells and water supply systems, cleanliness in hairdressing salons, bathhouses and swimming pools, factories and factories, schools and institutes; check cesspools and garbage dumps; study the impact of household insects, rats and mice, dogs and cats, livestock and wild animals on people.
Hygiene Recommendations implemented through SES ( sanitary-epidemiological stations) and SEC (sanitary and epidemiological centers).
To the SEC inspector given great rights: he can stop the work of any enterprise if the production technology and products do not meet sanitary standards; close retail outlets that do not comply with hygiene rules or sell products that are hazardous to health.
People who face administrative or criminal penalties violating sanitarynorms hostels: littering courtyards and entrances, throwing noisy parties at night, etc.
Sanitary doctors identify sources of diseases and, if necessary, declare quarantine- prohibition or restriction of exit and entry into the territory where a dangerous infection has appeared.
Quarantine can be introduced in a kindergarten, school, hospital and other institutions for the duration of the necessary disinfection.
Those who violate quarantine can become carriers of infection and cause an epidemic that is dangerous for many people.
Epidemic- widespread (mass) spread of some infectious (contagious) disease.
4. Valeology(Latin valeo - “to be healthy”) - theory of health consisting of the physical, moral and spiritual health of a person.
is an integral science those. based on knowledge of the natural, social and human sciences - medicine, hygiene, biology, sexology, psychology, sociology, philosophy, cultural studies, pedagogy and others.
More precisely, Valeology is the science of: 1.rules of a healthy lifestyle,
2. reserves of human health,
3. hygiene rules,
4. the basics of environmental literacy.
What is health? in a biological sense it is physiological adaptation / adaptation a specific organism to life in some specific/certain conditions and the ability to adapt to changing conditions.
What factors provoke negative changes able health person?
Modern biology is a complex system of knowledge, which includes a large number of individual biological sciences, differing in tasks, methods and methods of research. Human anatomy and physiology are the basis of medicine. Anatomy human studies the form and structure of the human body from the point of view of its development and the interaction of form and function. Physiology- the vital activity of the human body, the significance of its various functions, their mutual connection and dependence on external and internal conditions. Physiology is closely related to hygiene- science about the main ways to preserve and strengthen human health, about normal working and rest conditions, and about the prevention of diseases. Each person in his own way reflects the external world that surrounds him. Everyone develops their own inner world, relationships with other people, defining and evaluating their actions. All this forms the mental activity of each individual, his psyche. It includes: perception, thinking, memory, representation, will, feelings, experiences of a person, thereby forming the character, abilities, interests of everyone. Psychology- a science that studies the mental life of people. It uses methods characteristic of any science: observations, experiments, measurements.
The development of these sciences helps medicine to develop effective methods for treating disorders of the vital organs of the human body and to effectively combat various diseases.
| The science | What does he study? |
| Botany | Plant science (studies plant organisms, their origin, structure, development, life activity, properties, diversity, history of development, classification, as well as the structure, development and formation of plant communities on the earth's surface) |
| Zoology | Animal science (studies the origin, structure and development of animals, their way of life, distribution around the globe) |
| Biochemistry, biophysics | Sciences that separated from physiology in the mid-twentieth century |
| Microbiology | Microbial Science |
| Hydropaleontology | The science of organisms that inhabit aquatic environments |
| Paleontology | Fossil Science |
| Virology | Virus Science |
| Ecology | Science that studies the lifestyle of animals and plants in their relationship with environmental conditions |
| Plant Physiology | Studies the functions (life activity) of plants |
| Animal Physiology | Studies the functions (life activity) of animals |
| Genetics | The science of the laws of heredity and variability of organisms |
| Embryology (developmental biology) | Patterns of individual development of organisms |
| Darwinism (evolutionary doctrine) | Patterns of historical development of organisms |
| Biochemistry | Studies the chemical composition and chemical processes underlying the life of organisms |
| Biophysics | Explores physical indicators and physical patterns in living systems |
| Biometrics | Based on the measurement of linear or numerical parameters of biological objects, it performs mathematical processing of data in order to establish practically significant dependencies and patterns |
| Theoretical and mathematical biology | Allowing the use of logical constructions and mathematical methods, establishing general biological patterns. |
| Molecular biology | Explores life phenomena at the molecular level and takes into account the importance of the trimeric structure of molecules |
| Cytology, histology | Studies the cells and tissues of living organisms |
| Population and aquatic biology | The science that studies the populations and components of any type of organism |
| Biocenology | Studies the highest structural levels of the organization of life on Earth up to the biosphere as a whole |
| General biology | Studies general patterns that reveal the essence of life, its forms and development. |
| and many others. | |
The emergence of human sciences
The desire and ability to help a sick relative is one of the traits that distinguishes us from animals. In other words, medicine, or more precisely, the first experiences of healing appeared even before the emergence of the human mind. Fossil finds indicate that Neanderthals already took care of the wounded and maimed. Experience passed on from generation to generation as a result of medical activities contributed to the accumulation of knowledge. Hunting animals provided not only food, but also some anatomical information. Experienced hunters shared information about the most vulnerable places of their prey. The shape of the organs was clear, but most likely they were not thought about at that time. Persons who took on the role of healers were often forced to practice bloodletting, applying bandages and sutures to wounds, they also removed foreign objects and performed ritual interventions. All this, together with spells, worship of idols and belief in amulets and dreams, constituted a complex of means of healing.
The primitive communal system is unique: all the peoples of our planet, without exception, went through it. In its depths, the decisive prerequisites for the entire subsequent development of mankind were formed: instrumental (labor) activity, thinking and consciousness, speech and languages, economic activity, social relations, culture, art, and with them healing and hygienic skills.
Primitive healing. Before the emergence of the science of paleontology, which was formed (as a science) about a hundred years ago, there was an idea that primitive man was absolutely healthy, and diseases arose as a result of civilization. A similar point of view was held by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who sincerely believed in the existence of a “golden age” at the dawn of humanity. Paleontological data contributed to its refutation. The study of the remains of primitive man showed that his bones bear traces of traumatic injuries and serious illnesses (arthritis, tumors, tuberculosis, curvature of the spine, caries, etc.). Traces of diseases on the bones of primitive man are much less common than traumatic defects, which are most often associated with damage to the skull. Some of them testify to injuries received during hunting, others - to experienced or not experienced trepanations of skulls, which began to be performed around the 12th millennium BC. paleontology made it possible to determine the average life expectancy of primitive man (it did not exceed 30 years). Primitive man died in the prime of his life, not having time to grow old, he died in the fight against nature, which was stronger than him.
The earliest people have already shown collective care for sick relatives, since without support a seriously ill person must die in the early stages of the disease; however, he lived for many years as a cripple. Ancient people The first burials of the dead have already begun. Analysis of numerous samples from burials indicates that relatives collected medicinal herbs and covered their dead with them.
In its heyday primitive society healing was a collective activity. Women did it because caring for children and other members of the community required it; men assisted their relatives during the hunt. Treatment during the period decay of primitive society Traditional skills and techniques were consolidated and developed, the range of medicines expanded, and instruments were made.
Formation healing magic occurred against the background of already established empirical knowledge and practical skills of primitive healing.
How does the human body work? Why is it designed this way and not otherwise? All these and other questions began to interest man from the moment when he began to think not only about his physical existence. The first question is answered by anatomy, the second by physiology. The history of anatomy and physiology is consonant with the history of advanced human thought. Mysticism and speculation, unable to withstand the test of time and research - first with a scalpel, and then with a microscope - were eliminated, but the truth remained, corrected, obtaining the proper results. In this regard, it seems that the interest in anatomy and physiology as sciences among the enlightened part of humanity was natural, dictated by the need to understand human suffering and, if possible, alleviate it. Therefore, it is in the ancient art of healing, which summarized the experience of previous millennia, that one should look for the origins of such sciences as human anatomy and physiology.
At the origins of medicine
In the modern world, assessment primitive healing ambiguous. On the one hand, his rational traditions and vast empirical experience were one of the sources of traditional medicine of subsequent eras and, ultimately, of modern scientific medicine. On the other hand, the irrational traditions of primitive healing arose as a natural result of a perverse worldview in the difficult conditions of the struggle of primitive man with a powerful and incomprehensible nature; their critical assessment should not serve as a reason to deny the centuries-old rational experience of primitive healing as a whole. Healing in this era was not primitive. The end of the primitive era coincides with the beginning of the history of class societies and states, when more than 5 thousand years ago the first civilizations began to emerge. However, remnants of the primitive communal system were preserved in all periods of human history. They continue to remain in the tribes today.
The art of healing and medicine in countries ancient Mediterranean were empirical-descriptive and applied in nature. Having absorbed the achievements of all the peoples of the Mediterranean, medicine was formed as a result of the transformation and mutual penetration of ancient Greek and Eastern cultures. Associated with mythological ideas about the structure of the world and the place of man in this world, the emerging science of medicine was limited only to external observation and description of the structure of the human body. Everything that went beyond information about the shape, color, eye and hair color, everything that could not be examined with the eyes and hands, remained outside of medical intervention. However, facts that did not find an explanation at that time gradually accumulated and were initially systematized. True science was purified from magic and witchcraft, which made medicine more convincing. Thanks to research related to the autopsy of animal and human corpses, sciences such as anatomy and physiology arose, studying the structure and functioning of the human body. Many anatomical terms and surgical techniques exist in medicine to this day. Undoubtedly, studying the experience and way of thinking of the great scientists of ancient times will allow us to better understand the laws and trends in the development of modern natural sciences.
| Period | Thinkers/Scientists | Contribution to science |
| 6th–5th centuries | Heraclides (Greek thinker) |
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| 384–322 BC | Aristotle (Greek thinker) |
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| 460–377 BC | Hippocrates (ancient physician) |
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| 130–200 AD | Claudius Galen (Roman physician, successor of the ideas of Hippocrates) |
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| 1452–1519 | Leonardo da Vinci (Italian artist and scientist) | He studied, recorded and sketched the structure of the human body. |
| 1483–1520 | Rafael Santi (great Italian artist) | He believed that to correctly depict a person, you need to know the location of the bones of his skeleton in a particular pose. |
| 1587–1657 | William Harvey (English scientist) |
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| First half of XVII | René Descartes (French philosopher) | Discovery of the reflex. |
| 1829–1905, 1849–1936 | I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov | Reflex work |
| Beginning of the 19th century to the present day | Louis Pasteur (French scientist), I. I. Mechnikov (Russian scientist) | Reflex work |
Middle Ages, which until recently was considered barbaric, made a significant contribution to the cultural history of mankind. The peoples of Western Europe went through a difficult path from tribal relations to developed feudalism, the natural sciences of that time experienced periods of almost complete oblivion and rigid church dogmas, so that, turning to the rich heritage of the past, they were reborn anew, but at a new, higher level, using experience and experimentation to new discoveries.
Nowadays, when humanity returns to understanding the importance of the priority of universal human values, the study of the historical and cultural heritage of the Middle Ages allows us to see how in the era Renaissance The cultural horizons of the world began to expand, as scientists, at the risk of their lives, overthrew scholastic (knowledge divorced from life) authorities and broke the framework of national limitations; Exploring nature, they served, first of all, truth and humanism.
