How the learning process is organized in US schools. Organization of the learning process in a modern school Among these measures should be mentioned

Liliya Kim, who moved to the United States and is now pursuing a career as a screenwriter in Hollywood, talks about how the modern school in Los Angeles, where her daughter Sonya goes, differs from ours. Everyone can see the difference for themselves and evaluate the advantages of one or another system.

About the first day at American public school

Last year I made all sorts of complex maneuvers - how to move to an area where the best public schools are free, which are obliged to accept a child in the area. Schools in America are supported by real estate taxes, so the principle is this: the more expensive the real estate in the area, the more money per student in the school. Somewhere it’s 6 thousand a year per student, and somewhere it’s 29. The difference is in the quality of teachers. The more expensive the teachers - the better they teach - the higher the average scores - the more people enroll in Ivy League universities. The best high school we went to looks like an ordinary Moscow school. Well, only with two stadiums, a basketball hangar, a swimming pool, and a huge library. But without any design or renovation at all. Painted walls, concrete, anti-vandal furniture.

Going to a good “public” is just an operation here. You need to bring a bunch of papers that you really have the right to go to school in this district. That you have property or rent, gas and electricity bills in your name, an ID with an address or a piece of paper from the DMV that you have officially changed your place of residence (there is also a registration here, yes, but you can do everything with it electronically), two letters from different addresses from different senders in your name no older than a month. And if someone discovers that you actually live in another area, and you faked it all, there will be a shame, a comradely trial, the child will be expelled from school, even in the middle of the year, no matter what.

The first two years we studied at an inexpensive private school for 12.5 thousand a year, and in the third we decided to socialize to the fullest extent. And let's go. And suddenly it turned out that you don’t need to buy textbooks from the public; they are given out. At the previous school, a set of everything for studying - textbooks, all sorts of things for art and science was another 2.5 thousand per year.

And then for the free school it turned out that you only need to buy:

- a block for paper (a folder with rings where you can insert replaceable blocks) - there is one for all items with dividers, like 6 dollars;

- a physical education uniform with the school’s symbols - we have some kind of lions there - 8 dollars for a set of shorts + T-shirt, I took two so as not to have to worry about washing;

well, that's all.

A diary, also known as a planner, also known as a reference book on all school rules and standards for grading, with a description of standards for submitting work, calendars, ethics, how to use everything that the school has, the sequence of resolving disputes - in short, everything - they were given. Such a Talmud A4.

Paper - removable blocks, pens, pencils, colored pencils, in short, all the office supplies - seem to be sold in the school store for a few pennies, but there is no point in buying it anywhere else. There they get it as needed - like a block of 100 sheets for a dollar, pens - three for a dollar, in short, a special price for everything for school. no extra charge or taxes.

In total, it cost me $22 to send my child to school this year.

And 4 thousand rent per month, versus 2 thousand that were in another area. Without such good public schools. But not 72 thousand a year for a good private one, which starts in senior high school and for high school. In America, elementary, middle and high schools are different institutions. Cunning plan)

They do not have permanent classes. Everyone has their own schedule and they are in different compositions for different lessons. People are 30-40. The child spends a week in awe of the teachers - how cool they are, how interesting everything is. That in chemistry they are given the opportunity to blow things up and set fire, and the science teacher says, “I’m not here to become your favorite teacher, but to make you love science.” Well, the rest of the subjects are the same - interaction, discussion, discipline.

There is a study advisor that helps you build an optimal test preparation process and fine-tune your schedule. If some lessons are uninteresting, you can leave the minimum that is necessary to pass any general, mandatory tests, and what is interesting can be increased and deepened.

Physical education is hell. Every day. Be sure to sign up for some team sport and individual sport. Show results. Types can be changed - even every month. Until you find the right one.

Lunches are $3, but if the family has the right to some kind of subsidy, then it’s $1. Lunch – sandwich, yogurt, juice. Our school is obsessed with everything being organic.

Water is free in any quantity.

Smartphones cannot be used. The library is free - it has everything. Not only books, but also films, magazines, newspaper archives of all kinds.

There is something like labor - they teach you how to cook, repair household appliances, calculate a budget, plan purchases, clean, etc.

Back at my previous school, my question “what can I do to help Sonya adapt faster?” – I was immediately asked not to do anything. Especially not to do homework with her and not to interfere at all. “The only thing you can really do is not add to her stress by worrying.” This was especially true for me and my Chinese parents.

They explained to us that by controlling the learning process and doing homework together with the child, we instill in him a feeling of helplessness - that he cannot cope on his own, we stress him with the need to please us with the success of his adaptation and deprive him of the joy of achievement when he succeeds. Like, your training has already been completed - she is studying. And there is no benefit from your intervention except harm. “You don’t train anything other than impostor syndrome in a child this way,” a history teacher who worked at a previous school told me sternly. Then I found out that they have a whole practice of overcoming this phenomenon, although it arose in connection with Asian American society limitations. The Chinese, they say, wildly stress children with family control of the learning process and this, as various studies have shown, is harmful. They say that even gifted children, under this pressure, achieve something not thanks to it, but in spite of it. And the usual ones, in general, show results lower than they are obviously capable of.

At the new school we were greeted in exactly the same way. The schedule was issued. When I asked what I could do, I was offered to volunteer at a school picnic or donate to renovate the football field lawn. When the locker given to Sonya did not open, the deputy principal of the school vice principal, who made sure that everything went smoothly, said the same thing - let’s urgently reduce your stress and went with us to deal with the locker. I found one that worked and checked everything myself. Then I asked him whether by the first day of school I should change the black and red color of Sonya’s hair to a more natural or at least less provocative one?

“What’s so provocative about that, ma’am?” – asked the deputy director. - I have two daughters. One has blue hair, the other purple.

“Uh... Well, if you’re okay with this, it sounds very calming,” I say.

And then I was again encouraged not to worry about anything, not to add stress to her and myself, because we just moved, Sonya is going to a new school - this is all very, very big stress, so let's not increase it. Mind your own business, ma'am. Don't make your child, in addition to everything she has to overcome now, worry about your reaction. With all due respect, ma'am, school is not your area of ​​responsibility or competence. We thank you for your trust and usually justify it. Not without pride, the deputy director in shorts, a T-shirt and worn-out sneakers, with faded tattoos on his arms, assured me in a confident voice.

Then I suddenly realized that what had been wildly stressful for me in the historical practice of interaction with educational institutions in Russia was precisely the violation of boundaries and the shifting of competence zones. That for some reason the family was assigned part of the functions of the school - to teach, control, motivate, evaluate, etc., and that schools and kindergartens were constantly expected to fulfill the functions of the family, that the teacher would be like a mother, and the physical teacher and labor worker would be like a wise father.

During the first week, the rules were explained to the newly arrived students. What will they be assessed for and how. No one was forced to talk about themselves, no one was built up, no one was singled out. Everyone was simply gathered and the process just began. Routine, calm. The less something is specially allocated, the less stress. Well, we started the school year and started. Well, a new school and a new one. Usual things. Nothing special.

About the control system and discipline in the American school

Here it is necessary to explain that in those two American schools - private and free - where we studied before and moved now - the system of discipline and control is set up in a way that I have never seen in any Russian one. Starting with the number of absences of no more than 5 lessons per year (with a doctor’s certificate it is possible, but here they will raise any additional questions about academic performance - you can easily stay in the second year at an American school), “zero tolerance for tardiness”, absolute requirements for discipline in class, “What if I forget to turn in my work on time? – well... then I’ll forget to move you to the next level,” grades consisting of three components - the test result itself, accumulated points for timely and high-quality completion of homework and participation in the process - that is, you cannot get an A+ by memorizing the night before the test, you or studied the entire course conscientiously, or you will get a C even with a good test.

The global difference is in the approach. Parents are removed from the process, because the task is to teach the child, at a level that is understandable to him in elementary, middle and high school, to organize independently. At this moment, the foundations were laid for the phenomena that when traffic lights were cut off throughout Santa Monica, no collapse occurred, traffic continued self-organized without traffic jams and collective blocking of the intersection. When there is a fire in the summer, the area itself is evacuated in an orderly manner until the firefighters and police arrive. When everyone submits their taxes themselves and organizes a theater, church, school, municipal government, etc. in the community.

Because parents will not be able to “force” their whole life, and if a little person does not develop this skill on his own until adulthood, then a) either the parents (and the state later) will have to deal with a dependent family member all their life; b) or, what happens in America due to the structure of society - he will have to unpreparedly compete for jobs in the conditions of student loans, mortgages and people’s total preoccupation with success with those who have developed the skill of self-discipline and organization during their school years and can easily rely on their skills by leaving their family to where they were offered a more promising job.

As for the Olympiads, there are also all sorts of national competitions in mathematics and other things. And at her previous school, Sonya had an atomic conflict with their former Chinese champion, because she suddenly showed a better result than him. The champion's mother became hysterical and ran to bother everyone - that her son should be forced, loaded, better controlled. To which she was asked - are you sure that he wants to be a champion in mathematics? Are you sure that by forcing him to devote all his energy and time to mathematics (which he hates) you are not depriving him of the opportunity to find and develop the talent that he has and that he wants to develop? Here he is, for example, with pleasure he goes to additional language classes and has already learned three - Spanish, Armenian and English in addition to his Chinese. To which his mother yelled that she allowed him to learn languages ​​as a reward for success in mathematics. They tried to convey to her that the guy obviously has talent and there is no need to force him to develop it, but mathematics...

I also see the endings of such stories regularly. A friend's boyfriend grew up in Chinatown SF. I was forced to learn math and play the violin. At the age of 17, he quarreled with his parents and left home. Now he works as one of the producers on the set of The Walking Dead, earns more than all his brothers and sisters combined, and does not communicate with his parents.

A week later my child said, “The teachers at this school are simply gods!” and in the second week he runs to school, without any reminders or control. Because it's interesting. Because every teacher here (and this was also the case at the previous school) sees his task as how to interest children. “I’m not here for you to love me, but my subject.” At my previous school, I was shocked to see how the process was built - how the teachers organized it in combination with the game, how they built communication with each student. Because it is a question of their professional suitability - to interest them, to find an approach to everyone, to give everyone an adequate workload, opportunity and fair assessment.

It is more difficult to interest than to force, to give the opportunity for informed choice is more difficult than to build, to teach awareness is more difficult than to obey. But the result is obvious. On days of self-organization, the school does not turn into chaos. The system functions on its own because everyone knows why he is doing something, how it should be done and how to cooperate with others. I don’t need to control how Sonya prepares for the tests, because after they explained the delivery schedule - what, when, in what form. to whom, how they will evaluate - she organizes her own training. This is how this picture arises - that without any control, when there are no longer teachers at school, the students sit and prepare each for their own. No one cheats - because they understand that they are studying for their own purposes, which they helped him understand. Because everyone is given the opportunity to choose and change priorities if they suddenly realize that it’s not for you. Each teacher leads his class in such a way as to a) interest, b) support those who want to get to know the subject in depth, c) not put pressure on those who clearly have a passion for something else - sports, other subjects. Just give them the opportunity to prepare normally for general tests and pass them without stress.

Then, when the external form (control) is removed, what is inside does not crumble like sand. Because the system is not outside – it is inside everyone as a result.

And for those who have not been helped at all, there is a plan B - the American army. But about that another time))

About middle school (6th grade)

Before leaving, I was frightened by the disgusting quality of American school education. They say that up to high school, simple equations also pass the multiplication tables. The training system is really different. The schedule is the same every day: English, science, social studies, mathematics, physical education, then two subjects that the student chooses for himself. For us it is additional English and art (drawing).

The English language is our literature, language, ethics and fundamentals of psychology all at once. Every week they read a book, discuss it, write an essay. All the exercises we did in Russian were about commas, revolutions, etc. included in the terms of the essay. They analyze motivations, how different feelings arise, etc. This month on the program: “The Devil's Arithmetic”, “The Curious Case of Jekyll and Hyde”, “The Metamorphosis” (Kafka), “War of the Worlds”.

Science is physics, chemistry, biology and ecology together. How everything is arranged and interacts systematically. For example, the physics of light, then the chemistry of photosynthesis, then the plant world and why smog is harmful. Since everything is studied in interconnection, it is better absorbed, saves time, and develops systems thinking.

Mathematics is like our algebra and geometry together. All initial levels - areas, simple matrices, etc. All tasks are tied to practice. For example, area calculations are taught using abstract figures like ours. Tasks for example: calculate how much paint is needed to paint the walls of a room, the ceiling? How much carpet is there for the floor? Don't forget to subtract the area of ​​windows and doors. Or figure out how many gallons of water are in a round pool, etc. The “Interest” section begins with tasks on how to calculate taxes and the final price of an item, how much to tip, and ends with calculating mortgage payments.

Social sciences are history, sociology, economics together. How everything mutually influences each other.

Physical education... American physical education is brutal! Coach Miss Shelton is a former Marine. First, general physical training, then training in team sports. The series Glee came to me in real life - how Miss Shelton trolls science teacher Mr. Ganders.

The art class is wonderful. Now they teach the laws of perspective. The technique is classic with additions - like, we draw a glass of water that stands on the windowsill. Those. Immediately the technique of perspective and light. Each sketch must be made with a different type of material - pencil, crayons, charcoal, etc. To understand how they interact with paper and learn how to choose the right tools for tasks.

I took a random photo of a page from a math textbook.

This is a general program, the textbooks are the same for everyone. The advantage of a private school is only in the number and quality of teachers, how much strength they have to get each student to understand everything. The ethics of teaching are also different. It is forbidden to compare students with each other. Those who fall behind are not scolded, excellent students are not praised in front of everyone - so as not to break the motivation of some to put in more effort, and not to tempt others to give up on everything, and so that everyone is guided by their own sense of their progress and tasks, and not the opinions of others, because everyone has their own life to live Then. Therefore, grades are a personal matter - tests are returned with a downward grade, so that other children do not see what they received. Comments are sent by email individually.

Training is a specially organized, controlled process of active, purposeful interaction between teachers (teachers) and students (trainees), aimed at developing in students certain knowledge, skills, experience and behavior, as well as certain personal qualities. The essence of learning as a process is expressed in pedagogical communication between the one who teaches and the one who learns. In any training, not only the activities of the student and the student are superimposed on one another and merged together, but also two types of activity: one is a specific activity that the teacher teaches and which the student learns, and the other is direct, immediate and indirect, indirect communication . This reflects the two-sidedness of the learning process: teaching - the activity of the teacher and learning - the activity of students appear in unity when the teacher transfers social experience to students in the form of educational content.

The driving force behind learning are the contradictions between the needs of students arising under the influence of the teacher for assimilation, acquisition of missing, and therefore necessary, knowledge and experience of cognitive activity to solve new educational problems and real opportunities to satisfy these needs. The connection and interaction between teaching and learning is schematically presented in Fig. 1.

Rice. 1.

What is the logic of the learning process and the structure of the assimilation process? The learning process is a specific type of human cognitive activity. It contains both general and specific features of the student’s cognition of the objective world.

However, if a scientist learns something objectively new in the course of studying certain phenomena or processes, then the student, in the process of learning, discovers and assimilates something subjectively new - what is already known to science and humanity, what has been accumulated by science and systematized in the form of scientific ideas, concepts, laws, theories, scientific facts. The path of knowledge of a scientist lies through experiment, scientific reflection, trial and error, theoretical calculations, etc., and the student’s knowledge proceeds more quickly and is greatly facilitated by the skill of the teacher. A scientist learns something new in its original form, so it may be incomplete, while a student learns simplified material, didactically adapted to the age-related educational capabilities and characteristics of the students. Finally, educational cognition necessarily involves the direct or indirect influence of the teacher, and the scientist often does without interpersonal interaction. And yet, despite these significant differences in the knowledge of the student and the scientist, these processes are basically similar and have a single methodological basis: from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice. Sensory cognition is based on sensations and perceptions; abstract thinking is understanding, comprehension, generalization. Generalization completes (mostly) learning if the inductive-analytical path is chosen, and with deductive-synthetic logic, on the contrary, generalized data in the form of concepts, theories, laws are introduced at the beginning of studying the topic or in the process of studying it.

Application- this is the ability to apply abstract knowledge to solve specific practical and cognitive problems, this is the mental activity of using knowledge in situations of extracurricular activities. The application of knowledge can be carried out in various forms and types of activities, depending on the specifics of the content of the material being studied (exercises for educational purposes, laboratory work, research assignments, work at a school, production site, etc.). Consequently, the purpose of training, as N.F. rightly points out. Talyzina, Yu.G. Fokin and other scientists and teachers, is the formation in a student (schoolchild, student) of the ability to carry out the activity being mastered or its elements, the totality of which constitutes the ability to carry out the activity being mastered:

• - value orientations (knowledge and beliefs necessary to choose a way to satisfy a need);
• - an indicative basis for activity (knowledge, theories and patterns necessary for planning activities);
• - an oriented basis for actions potentially necessary for the activity being mastered;
• - intellectual skills of activity planning;
• - a system of actions and skills for performing operations corresponding to them.

The result of training is changes in the psyche of the subject (student) of the teaching, creating conditions for him to perform activities of a new type for him. This is the logic of the learning process as a specific type of cognitive activity, its features and the structure of the process of assimilation in learning.

The methodological basis of the learning process is the theory of knowledge, and the driving force is contradiction, if it is meaningful, i.e. makes sense in the eyes of students, and resolving the contradiction becomes a clearly recognized necessity by them. No less important is the preparation of the contradiction by the very course of the educational process, its logic, so that students not only “grab” it, sharpen it, but also independently find a way to resolve it.

The central contradiction of the learning process, as is clear from the above diagram, there is a contradiction between the needs that arise in students under the influence of the teacher to assimilate the missing necessary knowledge and experience of cognitive activity to solve new educational problems and the real possibilities of satisfying these needs.

M.A. Danilov, a prominent didactician of the second half of the 20th century, formulated this contradiction as follows: it is a contradiction between the course of learning, cognitive and practical tasks and the current level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students, their mental development and relationships. Based on the resolution of this contradiction through the teacher’s skillful selection of teaching aids, the development of students and their learning capabilities is carried out. This central contradiction is manifested in particular contradictions between previously acquired and studied, everyday and scientific knowledge, educational and cognitive, research actions and scientific knowledge, between knowledge and the formation of skills and abilities.

These contradictions indicate that in the learning process, when identifying its essence, it is necessary to distinguish between the moment of organizing the activity and the moment of learning in the organization of the activity. In the latter, the communication between teacher and student is most clearly manifested, which is teaching itself, its essence. Eliminate communication between teacher and student, and learning as such will not be realized, and along with it, any interaction between teacher and student will disappear, the transfer of socio-historical experience and mastery of it will not take place.

Of course, the concept of “communication” is broader than the concept of “learning,” but any act of learning is communication. The content of learning as a process consists of specific activities that students must master during their studies. By mastering them, the student learns something, assimilates ideas, laws, theories, and norms of moral behavior. At the same time, he is not required to discover truths, but only to creatively assimilate them.

Hence, The central mechanism of learning as a process of active, purposeful interaction between teachers and students is communication, during which controlled cognition, assimilation of socio-historical experience, reproduction, and mastery of one or another specific activity occurs that underlies the formation of personality.

The influence of the teacher stimulates the student’s activity, while achieving a certain, pre-set goal, and controls this activity. Therefore, learning can also be represented as a process of stimulating the student’s external and internal activity and managing it. The teacher creates necessary and sufficient conditions for the student’s activity, directs it, controls it, and provides the necessary tools and information for its successful implementation. But the process of formation of knowledge, skills and abilities, the process of personal development, occurs only as a result of the student’s own activities. It is shown schematically in Fig. 2.

Rice. 2.

“Teaching” as a category of pedagogical science and the “learning process” (“didactic process”) are not identical concepts, not synonyms. The process is a change in the state of the educational system as an integral pedagogical phenomenon, as a fragment, as an act of pedagogical activity.

It can be represented by the following formula proposed by V.P. Fingerless:

DP = M + Af + Au,

where DP is the didactic process;

M - students' motivation to learn;

Af - functioning algorithm (learning and cognitive activity of the student);

And y is the control algorithm (the teacher’s activity in managing teaching).

Carrying out at different levels, the learning process is cyclical in nature, and the most important, main indicator of the development of cycles of the educational process are the immediate didactic goals of pedagogical work, which are grouped around two main goals - educational and educational.

Educational purpose is that all students master the basics of social experience, acquire a certain amount of knowledge, skills and abilities, develop spiritual and physical abilities, and acquire the basics of labor and professional skills; have mastered the necessary amount of special knowledge and skills.

Educational purpose is to educate each student as a highly moral, harmoniously developed personality with a scientific-materialistic worldview, a humanistic orientation, creatively active and socially mature. The relationship between these goals in a modern school is such that the first is subordinate to the second. Consequently, the main goal of education is to raise an honest, decent person, to prepare a competent professional who can work independently and realize his human potential. The other two indicators of the development of cycles of the educational process are the means of teaching and its effectiveness as an integral dynamic (activity) system.

Having named these indicators of the training system, we immediately come across a number of questions, namely: “What kind of system is this?”, “What functions does it perform?” The answers to these questions provide insight into the very nature of the learning process. It is possible to characterize the learning process as a system only by tracing this system in its dynamics, i.e. identifying how its composition (elements), structure (connections between them) changes in accordance with its functions. It should be remembered that we are not just talking about any system, but about a special system - a system of activity and the relationships that are formed within this system (for example, transformative-active or contemplative-executive, consumer-dependent or effectively creative, etc. .). This system is created by people themselves and does not exist separately from them, but is implemented by them and through them.

What should be understood by the integrity, consistency and complexity of the learning process? In pedagogical science there is no unambiguous interpretation of these concepts yet. In the general philosophical understanding, integrity is interpreted as the internal unity of an object, its relative autonomy, independence from the environment. This is an objective property of objects and processes, but it cannot always be inherent in them. The integrity of learning can arise at one stage of its development and disappear at another.

This provision is very important for teaching practice. The integrity of pedagogical objects, of which the most significant and complex is the educational process, is purposefully constructed. The dialectic of existence as given and constructed in real pedagogical reality is manifested in two aspects of the integrity of pedagogical objects.

The first aspect - integrity is a natural property of the educational process. It objectively exists insofar as the school and the learning process itself exist in society. This aspect is reflected in the invariant characteristics of the educational process. For example, for the learning process in its abstract understanding, such characteristics are the unity of teaching and learning, the unity of the substantive and procedural aspects of this process.

The second aspect is that in real pedagogical practice the integrity of the learning process is specially and purposefully formed and constructed. A variable, constructed characteristic of the learning process in this situation is the unity of educational, developmental and educational functions. All these three functions are in complex intertwined relationships. The principle of learning integrity reflects this unity. It is implemented in practice by a set of tasks of a lesson, lecture, laboratory-practical lesson and other forms of organizing the educational activities of students, the content of training, i.e. the activities of the teacher and students, the combination of various forms, methods and means of teaching and the correction and self-correction of its results, which is introduced both into the activities of the teacher and into the activities of the student on the basis of control and self-control over the progress of the learning process from goal to result.

In pedagogical practice, as in pedagogical theory, the integrity of the learning process as the complexity of its tasks and means of their implementation is expressed in determining the correct balance of knowledge, abilities and skills, in coordinating the process of learning and development, in combining knowledge, abilities and skills into a single system ideas about the world and ways to change it.

The concept of “integrity” of the learning process is inextricably linked with the concepts of “systematicity” and “complexity”. In some ways, the concept of “integrity” overlaps the concepts of “systematicity” and “complexity”. “System” is a set of interconnected elements (components) that form a stable unity and integrity, possessing integrative properties and patterns - this is how one of the prominent researchers defines this concept.

In the light of this interpretation of the system, education as an integral system contains many interrelated elements: goals, educational information, means of pedagogical communication between the teacher and students, forms of their activities and methods of providing pedagogical guidance to educational and other types of activities and behavior of students.

Schematically, the learning process as an integral system is presented in Fig. 2.

Rice. 2.

The system-forming concepts of the learning process as a system are “learning goal”, “teacher activity” (teaching), “student activity” (learning) and “result”. The variable components of this process are “controls”. They include the content of educational material, teaching methods, material aids (visual, technical, textbooks, teaching aids, etc.), organizational forms of learning as a process and educational activity of students. The connection and interdependence of teaching aids as variable components with constant meaning-forming components depend on the purpose of learning and its final result. They form a stable unity and integrity, possessing integrative properties and subordinated to the general goals of education - global goals in preparing younger generations for life and activity in the existing society.

Teaching is one of the main meaning-forming components of the learning process as a system. In the structure of education, teaching is the process of activity of a teacher (teacher), which can function only as a result of close interaction with the student, both in direct and indirect form. But whatever form this interaction takes, the teaching process necessarily presupposes the presence of an active learning process. It also acts as such provided that the students’ activities are ensured, organized and controlled by the teacher, when in the learning process the students’ readiness for self-education is purposefully formed, when the integrity of the learning process is ensured by the common goals of teaching and learning.

In practice, the learning process is implemented:

• - in a clear definition of the teacher’s pedagogical goal, its translation into specific pedagogical tasks and, on their basis, in the development and setting of cognitive tasks for students, the solution of which ensures the progressive movement of students’ thoughts on the path of knowledge;
• - in the selection, systematization, structuring of educational information by the teacher (in the teaching project) and presentation of it to students in pedagogical reality;
• - in creating conditions for students to fully perceive, understand and master this information and methods of working with it;
• - in the organization and adjustment of rational, effective, adequate learning activities for each student in mastering the system of knowledge and methods of operating them in educational and production work.

The activity of teaching in a certain aspect acts as the management of educational and cognitive activities of students within the framework of the content of education, which is predetermined by the tasks of the harmonious development of the intellectual, moral and physical strengths and abilities of the younger generation. Pedagogical management on the part of the teacher consists of goal setting, planning of his own activities and the activities of students in the lesson, organizing these activities, stimulating the activity and consciousness of schoolchildren in acquiring knowledge and methods of activity, monitoring, regulating the quality of training and students’ performance of educational actions, analyzing learning results and forecasting, designing further changes in the personal development of students. In this context, we mean a pedagogical influence that is not only and not so much corrective as formative in nature and the purpose of which is to transform the subject of action himself and the formation of various structures of mental, moral activity and personality structures in him. To manage this activity, the subject of teaching must, first of all, clearly understand its varieties and mechanisms, its products, be able to correctly formulate goals and measure their achievements, and ensure both external and internal regulation of activity.

Planning as a stage of managing the learning process includes:

• - analysis of the initial level of preparedness of students, their educational capabilities;
• - analysis of the state of the material base and methodological equipment;
• - analysis of the teacher’s personal professional capabilities;
• - selection of content, forms and methods of teaching lessons, specific types of work, etc.;
• - drawing up calendar-thematic or lesson plans depending on what tasks are being solved - strategic, tactical or operational.

Control of cognitive activity in the learning process is sometimes understood too narrowly - as control of assimilation within the framework of individual cognitive tasks. For example: managing the process of discovering the unknown in various types of problem situations, managing the process of exiting a problem situation, etc. Management tools in this understanding (the level of operational management) are “guiding tasks”, prompts of varying intensity, reformulation of the task, etc. From our point of view, all these means should be elements of a holistic process of presenting students with a system of tasks that would provide for the gradual advancement of schoolchildren through the stages of knowledge. These stages provide for a transition from tasks of a low level of problematic nature and cognitive independence of students in the course of solving them to creative, research problems and thereby project the conscious assimilation of a certain level of formation of properties, qualities of knowledge (systematicity, dynamism, generality, etc.).

The focus of teaching in such an organization of learning is to identify those necessary conditions for organizing the student’s educational activity in the lesson, the observance of which will allow him to master the subject and organizational aspects of the activity in organic unity. In particular:

• 1) consciously navigate the subject of educational activity (for a student these are the actions performed by him to achieve the intended result of the activity, prompted during teaching by one or another motive);
• 2) include the learned content of the previous action in your subsequent actions as a way to achieve their goal;
• 3) correlate independently taken actions to identify facts, highlight significant connections and disclose patterns with actions to determine goals and develop a program of activities, which, accordingly, includes actions to monitor the implementation of this program.

The organization of the learning process requires the teacher to take into account the personal characteristics of the student, his characteristics as an active, active subject of learning. What is necessary is not the assimilation of “transmitted knowledge,” but the joint discovery of this knowledge, which occurs in a situation where there is also emotional empathy, feeling, and a meeting of the personal meanings of the teacher and the student. It is advisable to represent (predict and project) not only the result of the cognition process - ready-made scientific theories, but also the process of their discovery itself.

The most important condition in this situation is a system of standard tasks. Its use ultimately contributes to the purposeful formation in students of the ability and need to systematically use the mandatory minimum of knowledge in their educational knowledge and practical activities as a tool for acquiring new knowledge. The management of educational and cognitive activity of students as the subject of teaching activity in the structure of education is characterized in this case, first of all, by the fact that when organizing the educational activities of schoolchildren, the initial task for immediate execution confronts the student with the goal that he needs to achieve at the end of studying the lesson topic and lesson system on the topic as a whole. To achieve this level of management (organization of students’ educational work), the teacher, when organizing training, each time determines in what activities students should include the knowledge to be acquired. The choice of activity is determined by the tasks provided for by the learning objectives. This expresses the leading role of the teacher in the learning process: its purpose is precisely to manage the active and conscious activity of mastering educational material.

To do this, it is necessary to: set reasonable educational goals; create favorable conditions for students to accept these tasks; clearly instruct them on the methods of upcoming activities; provide students with timely, necessary and sufficient assistance; awaken their curiosity, curiosity, sense of duty and responsibility.

Each act of teaching is intended to make certain changes both in the very nature of the student’s activity and in the process of his formation as a person. To do this, the teacher, while carrying out teaching activities, conducts a thorough analysis of the learning objectives in relation to specific learning situations, to the specific subject being studied and to each of its sections separately. And each time, the learning objectives of the lesson must be specified in standard tasks for the sake of which the learning is organized. Without defining such tasks, the learning goals (lesson goals) turn out to be insufficiently constructive, their achievement is difficult, and they are not amenable to pedagogical control. Without a clear idea of ​​what tasks knowledge is intended to solve, the teacher as a subject of teaching cannot determine what activities students should perform when learning this knowledge. That is why, before starting to teach “something,” the teacher must not only have a clear program of “what to teach,” but also formulate the tasks in which students will have to use the content they are learning.

• 1) the cognitive task must follow from the subject content in order to preserve the system of knowledge and the logic of science;
• 2) it is necessary to take into account the current level of development of students and their preparation so that real conditions for completing the task are created;
• 3) the task must contain the information necessary for the development of the mind, imagination, and creative processes;
• 4) students must be disposed to carry out subject activities (create positive motivation);
• 5) it is necessary to teach students how to solve a problem, equip them with the necessary methods, first together with the teacher, then in collective work, gradually moving them to independent individual actions.

When developing such programs, the teacher must evaluate what knowledge, for what purpose and to what extent he expects students to develop as a result of their study of this material. To do this, he needs to take into account the characteristics of individual types of educational activities and determine the totality of various types of student activities, which will ensure the achievement of the set goals in the formation of mental and mental qualities of students. In this case, the most important role is played by establishing the sequence of actions of students, the structure of the operational composition of the action (defining performing, evaluative and indicative actions), finding ways to increase the motivation of schoolchildren to participate in the process of cognitive activity. This is the first task of teaching in the learning structure.

The second task of teaching is the implementation of the principle of activity and self-government in the cognitive activity of students, i.e. such an organization of training sessions in which the teacher, with the help of software programs and the organization of educational and cognitive activities, directs and intensifies the process of active, independent and effective work of each student to master the basics of theory and methods of its application in solving educational and cognitive problems. The stimulating actions of the teacher in the teaching structure are also actions and techniques for regulating and correcting the learning process on the basis of continuous monitoring of the learning outcomes of schoolchildren in the form of simple observation, oral and written surveys, checking independent work and other techniques and methods of pedagogical activity. If the learning process is structured correctly and the guided, purposeful work of students brings the planned and expected result, if the acquired knowledge is transformed by the student into a personally meaningful system, then he will develop a strong interest in what he is doing and an incentive for independent learning activities. And this contributes to an even greater increase in the effectiveness of the learning process.

Teaching, a meaning-forming component of the learning process as a system, has always attracted the close attention of psychologists and didactics. Different psychological schools, in accordance with their views, had different ideas about the content and essence of learning as a student’s cognitive activity in the holistic learning process. The main psychological theories that considered the problem of learning include: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, cognitivism, activity theory and humanistic psychology.

Behaviorists (D. Watson, E. Thorndike) believe that learning (learning) is the acquisition by the body of new forms of behavior. “The formula “situation - response” expresses any learning process” - this is how E. Thorndike formulated the initial position of behaviorism. Subsequently, this theory began to be intensively developed by B.F. Skinner, who put forward the concept of operant conditioning (from surgery). The essence of this concept comes down to the fact that the body acquires new reactions due to the fact that it itself reinforces them, and only after that an external stimulus causes a reaction.

The most important provisions of behaviorism in substantiating the theory of learning is the structure “stimulus - response - reinforcement”. The individual is a passive element. He only reacts to external influences, to external stimuli. The student’s activity is reduced in this case to the mechanical performance of specific operations.

Gestalt psychologists take a different position in interpreting the essence of teaching. According to their concept (works by M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Kaffka, L. Levin), the student’s activity in learning is reduced to the role of a stimulator of internal changes in integral structures and motivations based on discretion, comprehension, insight (insight).

Representatives of cognitivism, in particular J.S. Bruner, consider learning as a process of creating a student’s own “cultural experience”, which is social in nature and conditioned by the cultural and historical context. According to another representative of the same direction, the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, during the learning process, a student masters structured information and performs formal logical operations. Its activity is completely determined by the age stages of mental and cognitive development: from the sensory and pre-operational stage (preschool age) through the stage of concrete operations (junior school age) to the stage of formal logical operations (fifteen years of age).

A special role in substantiating the theory of learning was played and is currently being played by the activity theory (A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein), which made it possible to present learning as the activity of the teacher and the learner and to justify the strengthening of the role of the latter in the learning process. According to this theory of learning, the student, in the learning process, performs specific formal-logical and creative operations provided for by programmed and completely socially determined activities. At the same time, the student has a high degree of comprehension of the teaching.

Today, the ideas of representatives of humanistic psychology (C.R. Rogers, A.H. Maslow) are of particular importance in revealing the essence of learning as an activity. Teaching in their understanding is a self-controlled structuring of personal experience for the purpose of self-development and self-organization of the individual. They perceive and interpret learning as an independent activity of the student, recognize his leading role in the learning process, justify the need for the student to use personal experience in solving educational and creative problems and preserve his freedom to choose forms of activity.

A brief review of the presented psychological theories of teaching indicates that their authors proceed from either a mechanistic or organic model of the world, man and his psyche, and the conclusions drawn by them largely remain only theoretical premises of teaching, and, consequently, teaching as a cognitive student activities in the holistic learning process.

In pedagogical science it is generally accepted that teaching is a specific type of activity of a person who is able to regulate his actions in accordance with his goal. The components of teaching are motives, educational actions, control, evaluation and analysis of the results of training, education and the level of personal development of the student.

The most important components of teaching as a process of activity are content and form. The content of teaching activity, and first of all its objectivity (both sensory-objective and material practice), has an objective-subjective nature. Object, reality, sensibility in teaching are not just objects or forms of contemplation, but a sensory-human, subjective cognitive practice. The student’s activities reflect the objective material world and the active transformative role of the student as a subject of this activity.

The final effect of any activity is a transformed reality associated with the satisfaction of the cognitive and practical needs of schoolchildren and anticipated in their minds by the purpose, image and motive of the activity. The subject of the student’s activity in the learning process is the actions he performs to achieve the intended result of the activity, prompted by one or another motive. The most important qualities of this activity:

• - independence, which is expressed in self-criticism and criticality;
• - cognitive activity, manifested in interests, aspirations and needs;
• - readiness to overcome difficulties associated with perseverance and will;
• - efficiency, which presupposes a correct understanding of the tasks facing students, the choice of the desired action and the pace of their solution

Also K.D. Ushinsky, trying to reveal the driving forces of the learning process, believed that “activity in its essence of this concept... is certainly a struggle and overcoming obstacles... No activity is conceivable: a) without obstacles, b) without the desire to overcome these obstacles and c) without actually overcoming them.” Passive activity, as he puts it, “is not activity, but undergoing the activity of another.” The products of educational activity - knowledge, experience - reflect not only their subjectivity, but also spirituality, social and personal relationships, assessments, and methods of application. These properties, which make up the content of cognitive activity, the content of teaching, have different sources and seem to meet each other halfway. Their meeting gives rise to cognitive activity. But if they do not correlate, then the activity will not take place; it will be replaced by a reaction.

Concretizing this situation in the conditions of education in a modern school, it should, first of all, be noted that educational activity is a form of existence of the student as a subject of learning. It expresses, manifests and forms all the qualities of a person, his characteristics.

The structure of educational activity in terms of its composition should include content, operational and motivational components. In the procedural structure of educational activities as activities aimed at solving educational problems, the following interconnected components can be identified that determine the sequence of activities:

• - analysis of the task, acceptance of the educational task;
• - updating existing knowledge necessary to solve it;
• - drawing up a plan for solving the problem;
• - its practical implementation;
• - control and evaluation of problem solving, awareness of the methods of activity that take place in the process of solving an educational problem.

The essence of learning is that the student not only acquires subject knowledge and skills, but also masters methods of action in relation to the acquired subject content. Therefore, when developing a teaching project, it is necessary to distinguish between the process of educational activity in which assimilation and self-assimilation occur.

A specific feature of the teaching is its focus and organization in the direction of students mastering methods of activity, starting with the process of its construction. The specific content of the activity, which is planned to be learned in the learning process, is always associated in the subject’s consciousness with the execution of an action or system of actions. Thus, cognitive actions are primary in the process of assimilation. The process of assimilation, as well as the acquired knowledge itself, is secondary in nature and outside of activity, outside the system of actions, they lose their power as incentives for learning or specific goals, as tools or tools of cognition.

The structure of cognitive activity identifies general actions that are performed by students when studying any discipline:

• - planning specific ways to obtain the required result;
• - mental selection of its parameters;
• - control of methods for obtaining the required result, control of compliance of the obtained result with the required one;
• - diagnosis of the causes of nonconformity (if any);
• - justification of the principle of action, choice of method, forecasting options for action;
• - decision-making, including by choosing a rational option of action;
• - determination of the necessary correction of the original plan.

In the course of performing these actions, the student must imagine the object of activity, the final and intermediate goals, mentally construct on this basis, predict the process of achieving the goal by identifying the set of actions in it, compare the selected actions with their full composition, analyze the differences and associated features of the process being studied, their impact on the object of activity.

The use of general actions in teaching is a characteristic feature of the fundamentalization of content, due to the fact that in teaching, along with the process of assimilation, a purposeful process of constructing new knowledge must constantly function. The constructive activity of the student begins where he enters into a specific interaction with its elements - knowledge about objects and phenomena of the external world as means of cognition. These interactions are part of the content of search cognitive activity with extensive use of intuition and are associated with the development of cognitive interest and knowledge needs. Search activity is carried out most effectively when the role of means of educational cognition is played by invariants of knowledge - fundamental (theoretical) scientific principles that underlie all variants of activity.

The form of cognitive activity of students is no less important in learning. Since ancient times, three forms have been known: material, speech and mental. However, the attitude towards them in learning theory was different. Historically, there was an opinion that mental activity was the leading one in learning, and speech was simply a means of expressing thoughts. Material activity, if used at all, is limited - in the practical training of students during practical training. However, this provision is valid only in certain conditions, when known knowledge and production skills need to be consolidated in educational work.

Without dwelling on the process of development of these forms of activity, we will analyze their continuity in the educational work of schoolchildren. It is obvious that learning can also be carried out in all three forms of activity, and the methods and means of each form historically developed in society appear before students as objects of assimilation, i.e. Forms of cognitive activity of schoolchildren are derived in learning from historically developed forms of activity. Their connections are also present in teaching in an implicit, compressed form: external, materialized activity is connected in educational work with speech and mental activities. Accordingly, there are direct and inverse relationships between them, classified according to the criterion of the generative form: when acquiring significantly new knowledge and methods of activity, the materialized form generates a speech form, which, collapsing, is transformed into a mental one; after assimilation, mental actions precede speech ones and determine the effectiveness of practical work.

Connections between forms of cognitive activity and their mutual influence presuppose the organization of the assimilation of specific methods inherent in each form. Thus, the materialized activity of students is associated with work, with physical models: devices, teaching handouts, with the design and development of technical objects and processes. Speech activity is carried out during the preparation and presentation of a report, abstract, etc. All these forms are widely used in teaching students, but the question of their optimal balance and the use of their connections has not yet been studied in secondary school didactics. Its practical solution is carried out empirically, based on the accumulated teaching experience, the methodological capabilities of teaching staff and the desire of individual teachers, which indicates the existing potential reserves for increasing the efficiency of the educational process.

This is the essence, the general characteristic of the structure of teaching - the basic concept of the educational system as an integral pedagogical process.

didactics pedagogical training

1. Learning as a process: essence, driving forces, functions. Structure of training. Driving forces.

Education - a two-way process of learning and teaching, the process of transferring and assimilating knowledge, abilities, skills, and methods of cognitive activity. Teaching- the child learns about the world. Teaching- management of the pedagogical process of the child’s cognitive and educational activities. Thus, teaching activity includes managing the student’s activities and managing the process of interaction with the student

Driving force teaching yavl. contradictions, based on permission cat. through skillful selection of teaching aids. development Learning always happens through communication.

The process is two-way: 1) teaching (school) 2) teaching (school) The activity of teaching is the activity of organizing teaching, as a result of which schoolchildren learn the content of education, the activity of monitoring the progress and results of organizing training. Teaching is the organization of conditions for people themselves: for mastering the material. Components of the learning process: Target (goals and objectives) Content (determined by the educational program). Activity-based (activities of teachers and students) Effective (assessment, self-esteem)

F-ii training.

1. Educational– associated with the assimilation of knowledge, abilities, skills (associated with the expansion of volume) Knowledge – understanding, retention in memory and reproduction of scientific facts, laws, concepts, etc. They must become the property of the individual, enter the structure of his experience. The most complete implementation of this function should ensure the completeness, systematicity and awareness of knowledge, its strength and validity.

2. Educational– formation of a value attitude towards material things (with the formation of relationships – worldview) Educates. f-iya follows from the very content, forms and methods of teaching, but at the same time it is implemented. and through special org-ii communication U with u. The implementation of this function requires the organization of training. percent., the selection of content, forms and methods is based on correctly understood tasks of education.

3. Developmental– establishing close relationships between phenomena and factors. (with structural complication of emo., intellect., motivational spheres). Developed f-iya imple. more effective with special the focus of the interaction between U and U on the comprehensive development of the individual.

Educational: - to form in students the concept of fabric; introduce the main types of tissues, the features of their structure and functions - indicate the connection between the structure and the functions performed.

Educational: - continue the formation of a scientific worldview based on the connection between the structure and the functions performed; - continue to develop interest in the subject within the framework of the topic being studied.

Developmental: - continue to develop the ability to compare, generalize, establish cause-and-effect relationships Forms of training organization- external expression of the coordinated activities of the teacher and students, carried out in a certain order and mode: lesson, excursions, homework, consultations, seminar, electives, workshops, additional classes.

In the traditional educational process means teaching phenomena: printed publications: textbooks, teaching aids, reference books, - floppy disks with educational information, - notes on the board, posters, - films, videos, - the word of the teacher.

When receiving distance education, the means of teaching are much wider and, in addition to traditional ones, include such as: - educational electronic publications; - computer training systems; - audio-video educational materials and many others. etc.

Driving force teaching yavl. contradictions, based on permission cat. through skillful selection of teaching aids. development Learning always happens through communication.

The process is two-way: 1) teaching (school) 2) teaching (school) The activity of teaching is the activity of organizing teaching, as a result of which schoolchildren learn the content of education, the activity of monitoring the progress and results of organizing training. Teaching is the organization of conditions for people themselves: for mastering the material. Components of the learning process: Target (goals and objectives) Content (determined by the educational program). Activity-based (activities of teachers and students) Effective (assessment, self-esteem)

2. Patterns and principles of learning.

Principles of training - commonly norms of educational organization prot., recommendations on ways to achieve learning goals based on its known patterns. These are guiding ideas, regulatory requirements for organizing and conducting didactics. percent.. They wear x-r most commonly. instructions, rules, norms, regulations. percent training

1. The principle of developing and educating education is aimed at the comprehensive development of the personality and individuality of the student.

2. Scientific content and methods of teaching. percent reflects the relationship with modern times. scientific knowledge.

3. Systematicity and consistency in mastering the achievements of science, culture, experience, and activity.

4. The principle of consciousness, creative activity [email protected] ty and independence of students under the guidance of a teacher.

5. The principle of clarity. 6. The principle of accessibility of training. 7. Principle of cutting strength. training. 8. The principle of connecting learning with life. 9. The principle of rationality. combination individual and collective forms and methods of student activity.

The principle of visibility.

Effective training. stuck from expedient involving the senses in the perception and processing of teaching. material. J. Komensky: “In proc. training Children need the opportunity to observe, measure, conduct experiments.”

Types of visibility along the line of increasing abstractness:

1. Natural visibility 2. Experimental (experiments, experiments) 3. Volumetric (models, layouts) 4. Visual (paintings, photographs, drawings) 5. Sound 6. Symbolic or graphic (graphs, diagrams) 7. Internal (images created by speech ) 3. Functions of the pedagogical process in primary school Educational function of primary education: content, structural components, types of educational tasks and methods of their implementation in the educational process.

Education - personal culture, the process of introducing a person to the values ​​of science, art, religion, morality, law, economics. Education is the basis for personal development. Gessen Sergei Iosifovich (1887-1950): “Genuine education does not consist in transmitting the cultural content that constitutes the peculiarity of the educational generation, but only in communicating to it that movement, continuing which it could develop its own new cultural content.” The formation of a creative personality according to Hesse as the main goal of education. Education

· formation of a person’s way of thinking and acting in society.

· the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities.

Self-education - a system of internal self-organization for assimilating the experience of generations, aimed at one’s own development.

Education system - there is general and special education. General - primary and secondary (knowledge, abilities and skills necessary for everyone). Special - secondary special and higher (knowledge, abilities and skills necessary for a particular profession).

Educational function is that the learning process is aimed, first of all, at the formation of knowledge, skills, and experience in creative activity. Knowledge in pedagogy is defined as understanding, storing in memory and reproducing facts of science, concepts, rules, laws, theories.

Educational function(in its narrow sense) involves the assimilation of scientific knowledge, the formation of special and general educational skills. Scientific knowledge includes facts, concepts, laws, patterns, theories, and a generalized picture of the world. Special skills include practical skills and abilities specific only to the relevant academic subject and branch of science. For example, in physics and chemistry this is solving problems, conducting laboratory experiments, showing demonstrations, and carrying out research work. In geography - working with a map, geographical measurements, orientation using a compass and other instruments, etc. In mathematics - solving problems, working with computers of various types, with a slide rule, with models, etc. In botany and biology - working with herbariums , dummies, collections, preparations, microscope.

4. The educational function of the pedagogical process: content, structural components, types of educational tasks and methods of their implementation in the educational process.

Educational function of teaching essentially lies in the fact that in the process of learning moral and aesthetic ideas, a system of views on the world, the ability to follow the norms of behavior in society, and to comply with the laws adopted in it are formed. In the process of learning, the needs of the individual, motives for social behavior, activities, values ​​and value orientation, and worldview are also formed.

The educational factor of learning is, first of all, the content of education, although not all academic subjects have equal educational potential. In humanistic and aesthetic disciplines it is higher: teaching music, literature, history, psychology, artistic culture, due to the subject content of these areas, provides more opportunities for personality formation. However, one cannot assert the automaticity of education in these subjects. The content of educational material can cause unexpected reactions from students that are contrary to intent. This depends on the existing level of education, the socio-psychological, pedagogical situation of learning, on the characteristics of the class, place and time of study, etc. The content of natural science disciplines, along with humanitarian subjects, greatly contributes to the formation of a worldview, a unified map of the world in the minds of students, the development on this basis of views on life and activity.

The second factor of education in the learning process, not counting the system of teaching methods, which also to a certain extent influences the formation of students, is the nature of communication between the teacher and students, the psychological climate in the classroom, the interaction of participants in the learning process, the teacher’s style of guiding the cognitive activity of students. Modern pedagogy believes that the optimal style of communication for a teacher is a democratic style, which combines a humane, respectful attitude towards students, provides them with a certain independence, and involves them in organizing the learning process. On the other hand, the democratic style obliges the teacher to exercise a leadership role and activity in the learning process.

Main directions and content of the educational process

Education is a purposeful and organized process of personality formation. In the holistic pedagogical process, the process of education (educational process) occupies an important place.

A process is a sequence of states, events and phenomena unfolding over time.

The process of education is a process of interaction between the person being educated and the teacher that unfolds over time, during which the goals of education are realized.

Specific features of the education process:

The educational process has a number of features: double-sided character, purposefulness.

1. The process of upbringing is a multifactorial process; it manifests numerous objective and subjective factors that, through their combined action, determine the unimaginable complexity of this process. It has been established that the correspondence of subjective factors expressing the internal needs of the individual with the objective conditions in which the individual lives and is formed helps to successfully solve the problems of education. The complexity of the educational process is also due to the fact that it is very dynamic, mobile and changeable.

2. The educational process is different duration. In fact, it lasts a lifetime.

3. One of the features of the educational process is its continuity And irreversibility. The process of school education is a process of continuous, systematic interaction. If the process of education is interrupted, proceeds from case to case, then the teacher constantly has to re-create a “trace” in the student’s consciousness, instead of deepening it and developing stable inoculations.

4. The process of education is a process complex. Complexity in this context means the unity of goals, objectives, content, forms and methods of the educational process, subordination to the idea of ​​the integrity of personality formation.

5. Important connection with self-education.

6. Hidden position of the teacher.

7. Difficulty in diagnosing the result.

Educational goals: The main goal is to promote the mental, moral, emotional and physical development of the individual. A private goal is to provide conditions for the flourishing of the individuality of a particular child, taking into account his age characteristics.

5. Developmental function: content, structural components, types of developmental tasks and methods of their implementation in the educational process of primary school.

The developmental function of teaching means that in the process of learning, assimilation of knowledge, the student develops. This development occurs in all directions: the development of speech, thinking, sensory and motor spheres of the personality, emotional-volitional and need-motivational areas. The developmental function of teaching essentially constitutes the problem of the relationship between training and development - one of the most pressing issues in psychology and modern didactics.

Developmental function of training means that in the process of learning, assimilation of knowledge, the student develops. This development occurs in all directions: the development of speech, thinking, sensory and motor spheres of the personality, emotional-volitional and need-motivational areas. Developmental function teaching essentially constitutes the problem of the relationship between training and development, one of the most pressing issues in psychology and modern didactics. The domestic psychological school and pedagogical research have established that education acts as a source and means of personal development. L.S. Vygotsky, argues that learning leads

behind development. However, psychology and didactics of the 20th century argue that the developmental function of education is implemented more successfully if the education has a special focus, is designed and organized in such a way as to include the student in an active and conscious variety of activities. The developmental function of education is implemented in a number of special technologies or methodological systems that specifically pursue the goals of personal development. In Russian didactics there is a special term for this “developmental education”. In the 60s, one of the Russian didactics L.V. Zankov created a system of developmental education for younger schoolchildren. Its principles, selection of educational content and teaching methods are aimed at developing the perception, speech, and thinking of schoolchildren and contributed to the theoretical and applied development of the problem of development during training, along with the research of other domestic scientists: D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydova, N.A. Menchinskaya and others. Thanks to these studies, domestic didactics received valuable results: the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P.A. Galperin), methods of problem-based learning (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner), ways to enhance the cognitive activity of students and etc. All this leads to the fact that the modern organization of education is aimed not so much at the formation of knowledge, but at the diversified development of the student, primarily mental, teaching methods of mental activity, analysis, comparison, classification, etc., teaching the ability to observe and draw conclusions , highlighting the essential features of objects, learning the ability to identify goals and methods of activity, and checking its results. Thus, it should be recalled once again: every learning leads to development, but learning is developmental in nature if it is specifically aimed at the goals of personal development, which should be realized both in the selection of educational content and in the didactic organization of the educational process. The learning process is also educational in nature.

6. State educational standard for primary schools.

Primary school is designed to ensure the development of the child’s personality, the holistic development of his abilities, and the formation of the student’s ability and desire to learn. In elementary school, students acquire the necessary skills and abilities of educational activities, learn to read, write, count, master the elements of theoretical thinking, the culture of speech and behavior, the basics of personal hygiene and a healthy lifestyle. Academic subjects at this level of school have the nature of integrated courses that lay down initial ideas about nature, society, man and his work. In elementary school, elective classes in physical, aesthetic and labor education, foreign languages, etc. can be introduced.

Methodological letter On the teaching of primary school subjects in the context of the introduction of the federal component of the state standard of general education

The purpose of the Federal component of the state educational standard primary general education - the creation of real conditions for each child aged 6 to 10 years to receive a full-fledged education, defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and taking into account his age and individual characteristics. The standard approves modern priorities in the goals and content of education at a given stage of development and upbringing of a child, determines the nature of the conditions that each educational institution must create to implement continuity of education, taking into account changed social conditions and requirements of society.

Goals (development of the personality of a junior schoolchild, formation of skills and abilities in educational activities, readiness for independent educational work, etc.

Let us emphasize that Mandatory minimum content of primary general education(hereinafter Mandatory Minimum) reflects presentation level school, teacher of knowledge to younger schoolchildren. In this context, the word “compulsory” means that this educational content must be provided to every student by an educational institution of any type, regardless of its location, organizational form, operating mode, class size, etc. The word “minimum” in this case shows the level of content required: all knowledge recorded in the document must be provided to the student for assimilation. A specific school, taking into account its characteristics, can expand the content of education, but does not have the right to reduce it, distort it or replace it with another. This ensures the variability of education and implements Article 14 (clause 5) of the “Law of the Russian Federation on Education”. Modern primary education should be aimed at solving the most important task of the social and personal development of the child.

One of the functions of the state standard was to ensure continuity of connections with the secondary level of the school

7. Types of educational programs in primary grades.

Didactic system of L.V* Zankov

L.V. Zankov, together with the staff of his laboratory, in the 60s of the previous century, developed a new didactic system that contributed to the general mental development of schoolchildren.

Basic principles

1. High level of difficulty.

2. Leading role in teaching theoretical knowledge, linear construction of training programs.

3. Progress in studying the material at a rapid pace with continuous accompanying repetition and consolidation in new conditions.

5. Fostering positive motivation for learning and cognitive interests in students, including the emotional sphere in the learning process.

6. Humanization of relationships between teachers and students in the educational process.

7. Development of each student in the class.

The essence of technology

The lesson has a flexible structure. During the lessons, discussions are organized on what has been read and seen, on fine arts, music, and work, and problem situations are created. Didactic games, intensive independent activity of students, collective search based on observation, comparison, grouping, classification, clarification of patterns, and independent formulation of conclusions are widely used. Pedagogical situations of communication in the classroom are created that allow each student to show initiative, independence, selectivity in methods of work, and an environment for the student’s natural self-expression.

Didactic system L.V. Zankova focuses the teacher’s attention on developing children’s ability to think, observe, and act practically. Many researchers, however, believe that this system develops empirical consciousness well and not enough theoretical one.

D«B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydova

Technology of developmental education D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov is fundamentally different from others in that the emphasis is on the formation of theoretical thinking in schoolchildren.

Theoretical thinking is understood as a person’s verbally expressed understanding of the origin of this or that thing, this or that phenomenon, or concept.

A theoretical concept can only be learned through discussion. What becomes significant in this teaching system is not so much knowledge as methods of mental action, which is achieved by reproducing the logic of scientific knowledge in children’s educational activities: from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete. The system began to take shape in the late 50s; it began to spread in mass schools in the 80s - 90s of the 20th century.

Basic principles

Deduction based on meaningful generalizations; content analysis; meaningful abstraction; theoretical substantive generalization; ascent from the abstract to the concrete; meaningful reflection.

Progress of training

Familiarity with the proposed scientific situation or task; - orientation in it; - sample material conversion; - fixation of identified relationships in the form of an object or symbolic model; - determination of the properties of the selected relation, thanks to which the conditions and methods for solving the original problem are derived, general approaches to the solution are formulated; - filling the selected general formula and conclusion with specific content.

Features of the technology

Rejection of concentric curriculum design. Failure to recognize the universality of using concrete visuals in elementary school. Freedom of choice and variety of creative homework. Features of the lesson in this system are collective mental activity, dialogue, discussion, and business communication between children. Only a problematic presentation of knowledge is acceptable, when the teacher comes to the students not with ready-made knowledge, but with a question. At the first stage of training, the main method is the method of educational tasks, at the second - problem-based learning.

A learning task in this concept is similar to a problem situation:

Acceptance from the teacher or independent formulation of an educational task; - transformation of the conditions of the problem in order to detect the general relationship of the studied object; - modeling of the selected relation to study its properties in subject, graphic and letter forms; - transformation of the relationship model to study its properties in its “pure form”;

Construction of a system of particular problems solved in a general way; - control over the implementation of previous actions; - assessment of mastering the general method as a result of solving a given educational task.

The quality and volume of work are assessed from the point of view of the subjective capabilities of students. The assessment reflects the student’s personal development and the perfection of his educational activities.

Training according to this system significantly increases the theoretical level of education by teaching schoolchildren not only knowledge and practical skills, but also scientific concepts, artistic images, and moral values. The teacher’s goal is to bring the personality of each student into development mode, to awaken the need for knowledge.

Harmony

Educational and methodological set “Harmony” for a four-year primary school was created at the Department of Primary Education Methods of the Moscow State Open Pedagogical University named after. M.A. Sholokhov

Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor N.B. Istomina (mathematics);

Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor M.S. Soloveitchik; Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor N.S. Kuzmenko (Russian language);

Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor O.V. Kubasova (literary reading);

Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, senior teacher O.T. Poglazova (the world around us);

Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences N.M. Konysheva (labor training).

Due to this is the first feature of the kit“Harmony” is its focus on overcoming the objectively established division of traditional and developmental education systems on the basis of an organic combination of the provisions of traditional methods that have confirmed their vitality and new approaches to solving methodological problems.

Second feature The set is expressed in the methodological embodiment in it of the main directions of modernization of school education (humanization, humanitarization, differentiation, activity-based and personality-oriented approach to the learning process).

These measures include:

The logic of constructing the content of courses aimed at mastering concepts and general methods of action, which, at a level accessible to primary school students, ensures their awareness of cause-and-effect relationships, patterns and dependencies within the content of each academic subject;

Ways, means and forms of organizing the educational activities of younger schoolchildren;

A system of educational tasks that takes into account both the peculiarities of the content of academic subjects and the psychological characteristics of younger schoolchildren and maintains a balance between logic and intuition, words and visual images, conscious and subconscious, conjecture and reasoning.

The third feature of the kit“Harmony” is to ensure the relationship between a teacher’s training at a university and his professional practical activities. The authors of the “Harmony” set (N.B. Istomina, M.S. Soloveichik, N.S. Kuzmenko, O.V. Kubasova, N.M. Konysheva) are at the same time the authors of textbooks and teaching aids, which are used for training at faculties training of primary school teachers in universities and teacher training colleges in Russia.

“Harmony” as a means of increasing the level of professional competence of a teacher and forming a new pedagogical consciousness in him, adequate to modern trends in the development of primary education. This is fourth feature of the educational kit.

L. G. PETERSON, R.N. BUNEEV,

1. The principle of the picture of the world.3. The principle of systematicity.

A system has been built that develops information literacy, not only in the subject “Informatics,” but skills in communicating with information in all other subjects have been developed; - a set of textbooks has been created:

Program "School of Russia"

1. Combines traditional developments and the latest achievements in psychology, pedagogy, and includes elements of developmental thinking.

2. It is a holistic model of an elementary school, built on a unified conceptual basis and having complete software and methodological support.

3. The kit implements the Federal component of educational content and covers all educational areas, including such innovative ones for primary schools as computer science and foreign languages

4. “School of Russia” - a school of spiritual and moral development.

5. The educational and methodological set is given such qualities as fundamentality, reliability, stability, openness to new things, which should become integral

6. Differentiation of education, development of the personality of each child, removal of stress-forming factors in the educational process.

8. General directions of modernization of primary education, which are reflected in the educational complex “School 2100”.

"School 2000..." - "School 2100"

Focused on ensuring the self-determination of the individual, creating conditions for his self-realization.

1. Independent discovery of new knowledge by children

2. Continuity between all levels of education at the level of methodology, content and

techniques

4. Multi-level training, the ability for each child to advance at his own pace 5. Maximum focus on creativity in educational activities.

6. Development of variable thinking

7. The “School 2000...” - “School 2100” program reflects one of the approaches to developmental education, developed from the position of continuity of scientific views and integration, non-conflicting ideas from new concepts.

FEATURES OF THE SET OF TEXTBOOKS "SCHOOL 2000..." - "SCHOOL 2100"

L. G. PETERSON, R.N. BUNEEV,

The educational and methodological set "School 2000..." - "School 2100" includes:

1) textbooks on mathematics for grades 1-4 of primary school by L.G. Peterson,

2) textbooks on teaching literacy, the Russian language, literary reading, and the surrounding world by authors R.N. Buneeva, E.V. Buneeva, O.V. Pronina, A.A. Vakhrusheva,

The following pedagogical principles are laid down.

A. Personally oriented principles.

1. The principle of adaptability. 2. The principle of development. 3. The principle of psychological comfort.

B. Culturally oriented principles. 1. The principle of the picture of the world.2. The principle of integrity of educational content.3. Principle of systematicity.4. The principle of a semantic relationship to the world.5. The principle of the orienting function of knowledge.6. The principle of relying on culture as a worldview and as a cultural stereotype.

B. Activity-oriented principles. 1. The principle of learning activities.

2. The principle of a controlled transition from activity in a learning situation to activity in a life situation. 3. The principle of transition from joint educational and cognitive activity to independent activity of the student (zone of proximal development). 4. The principle of relying on previous (spontaneous) development. 5. The creative principle, or the principle of developing the need for creativity and creative skills.

G. And a few more provisions.

1. School as part of the educational environment. 2. Readiness for further development.

3. Minimax principle. Maximum marks - minimum marks. "Gentle" homework system.

The educational and methodological association has solved the following problems in 10 years:

The content of education from preschool to 7th grade of secondary school has been updated; - a modern didactic system was formulated; - the problem of continuity and continuity between all links of the educational process has been solved;

A methodology for the formation of functional literacy objects by means of objects has been developed and built within the system;

A system has been built that develops information literacy, not only in the subject “Informatics,” but skills in communicating with information in all other subjects have been developed; - a set of textbooks has been created:

2. At the moment, “School 2100” is a state variable educational system. Her activities have been positively assessed by the Russian Academy of Education and

3. The educational system “School 2100” successfully solves the problems of modernizing Russian education, namely: creates conditions and develops mechanisms for growing a functionally literate individual (system of general educational skills, pre_

significant lines of development of students, etc.), in practice implements the principle of continuity and continuity of education.

9. Methods and techniques for developing creative abilities and personal qualities of students in the system of developmental education L.V. Zankova.

DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION is the development of physical, COGNITIVE, moral ABILITIES OF STUDENTS through the use of their potential." (L.S. Vygotsky)

From the point of view of modern pedagogy, the didactic principles of L. V. Zankov’s system sound like this:

training at a high level of difficulty;

inclusion of the studied didactic units in a variety of functional connections (in the previous edition - studying the material at a fast pace); - a combination of sensory and rational knowledge (in the previous edition - the leading role of theoretical knowledge); - students’ awareness of the learning process; - development of all students, regardless of their level of school maturity.

These principles are specified as follows.

The principle of teaching at a high level of difficulty is the leading principle of the system, for “only such an educational process that systematically provides abundant food for intense mental work can serve the rapid and intensive development of students.”

The functional approach is that each unit of educational material is studied in the unity of all its functions.

Collisions- this is a collision. The collision of the old, everyday understanding of things with a new scientific view of their essence, practical experience with its theoretical understanding, which often contradicts previous ideas. The teacher’s task is to ensure that these contradictions in the lesson give rise to dispute and discussion. By clarifying the essence of the emerging disagreements, students analyze the subject of the dispute from different positions, connect the knowledge they already have with the new fact, learn to meaningfully argue their opinions and respect the points of view of other students.

Variation b is expressed in the flexibility of the learning process. The same task can be performed in different ways, which the student chooses. The same task can pursue different goals: to focus on finding solutions, to train, to control, etc. The requirements for students are also variable, taking into account their individual differences.

Partial search and problem-based methods have been identified as system-forming teaching methods.

Both of these methods are to some extent similar to each other and are implemented using similar techniques. The essence of the problem-based method is that the teacher poses a problem (learning task) to the students and considers it together with them. As a result of joint efforts, ways to solve it are outlined, an action plan is established, which is independently implemented by students with minimal help from the teacher. At the same time, the entire stock of knowledge and skills they have is updated, and those that are relevant to the subject of study are selected from it. The techniques of the problem-based method are observation coupled with conversation, analysis of phenomena highlighting their essential and non-essential features, comparison of each unit with others, summing up the results of each observation and generalizing these results in the form of a definition of a concept, rule or algorithm for solving an educational problem.

Characteristic feature partial search method is that, having posed a problem to the students, the teacher does not, together with the students, draw up an action plan for solving it, but divides it into a series of subtasks accessible to children, each of which is a step towards achieving the main goal. Then he teaches the children to follow these steps sequentially. As a result of joint work with the teacher, students independently, at the level of their understanding of the material, make a generalization in the form of judgments about the results of observations and conversations. The partial search method, to a greater extent than the problem method, allows work at the empirical level, i.e. at the level of the child’s life and speech experience, at the level of children’s ideas about the material being studied. In the problem-based method, students do not so much use the techniques mentioned above as learn them.

10.The concept of teaching method. Multidimensional classification methods.

The teaching method (from the Greek Metodos - literally: the path to something) is the ordered activity of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving a given learning goal. Teaching methods (didactic methods) are often understood as a set of paths, methods of achieving goals, and solving educational problems. In pedagogical literature, the concept of method is sometimes referred only to the activities of the teacher or to the activities of students. In the first case, it is appropriate to talk about teaching methods, and in the second, about teaching methods. If we are talking about the joint work of a teacher and students, then teaching methods undoubtedly come into play here.

In the structure of teaching methods, techniques are distinguished. A technique is an element of a method, its component, a one-time action, a separate step in the implementation of a method, or a modification of a method in the case when the method is simple in structure.

The teaching method is complex, multidimensional, multi-quality education. The teaching method reflects objective patterns, goals, content, principles, and forms of teaching.

Teaching methods- historical category. At different periods of school development, the goals of education changed and were supplemented in accordance with the prevailing social goals and worldview. Thus, during feudalism, the only task of the official school was the assimilation of predominantly scholastic knowledge.

Classification of teaching methods- this is a system of them ordered according to a certain characteristic. Currently, dozens of classifications of teaching methods are known. Education- an extremely mobile, dialectical process. The system of methods must be dynamic to reflect this mobility and take into account the changes that constantly occur in the practice of applying methods.

I.P. Podlasy highlights 6 most justified classifications of teaching methods, which are outlined below.

Classification of methods by purpose(M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov). The general feature of the classification is the successive stages through which the learning process occurs in the lesson. The following methods are distinguished:

Acquisition of knowledge; formation of skills and abilities; application of knowledge;

Creative activity; consolidation;

Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity (I, Y. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin). The type of cognitive activity is the level of independence (intensity) of cognitive activity that students achieve when working according to the teaching scheme proposed by the teacher. The following methods are highlighted:

Explanatory and illustrative (informational and receptive);

Reproductive; problematic presentation; partially search (heuristic); research.

4. By didactic purposes two groups of teaching methods are distinguished (G.I. Shchukina, I.T. Ogorodnikova, etc.):

Methods that promote the primary assimilation of educational material;

Methods that help consolidate and improve acquired knowledge.

The first group includes: information and development methods (oral presentation by the teacher, conversation, work on a book); heuristic (search) teaching methods (heuristic conversation, debate, laboratory work); research method.

The second group includes: exercises (modeled, commented exercises, variable exercises, etc.); practical work. etc. methods

11.Use of visual methods in teaching in primary school.

Visual teaching methods are teaching methods in which the assimilation of educational material during the learning process depends on the use of visual aids and technical means.

Visual teaching methods must be used in elementary school lessons. This rule follows from the psychological characteristics of the attention of a primary school student.

These methods contribute to the development of memory, thinking, and imagination. However, the role of attention should not be denied. As you know, attention is a function that serves all mental processes. Without attention it is not possible to carry out any conscious activity, no thought arises. Consequently, without attention it is not possible to build the learning process normally. That’s why it’s so important to learn how to manage students’ attention.

Younger schoolchildren have little attention span and are prone to frequent distractions. In this regard, from the first lessons it is necessary to “cultivate” attention.

Among the visual teaching methods are observation, illustration and demonstration. Thanks to observation It is possible to arouse students’ interest in the life around them and teach them to analyze natural and social phenomena, as well as teach them to concentrate on the main thing and highlight special features. Thanks to demonstrations Students’ attention is directed to the significant, and not accidentally discovered, external characteristics of the objects, phenomena, and processes under consideration. Illustration used especially well when explaining new material. Then the teacher should illustrate his story on the blackboard with chalk. The drawing explains the teacher’s words, and the story makes the content of what is depicted on the board clear.

When using visual aids, you must comply

a number of conditions:

The visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students;

Visualization should be used in moderation and should be shown gradually and only at the appropriate moment in the lesson;

Observation should be organized so that all students can clearly see the demonstrated object;

Think through in detail the explanations given during the demonstration of phenomena;

The clarity demonstrated must be precisely consistent with the content of the material;

Involve students themselves in finding the desired information in a visual aid or demonstration device.

The effectiveness of the use of illustrations and demonstrations largely depends on the skillful combination of words and visualization, on the teacher’s ability to isolate those properties and features that better reveal the essence of the objects and phenomena being studied.

12. The use of verbal methods in teaching primary schoolchildren.

Verbal methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods

Progressive teachers - Ya.A. Komensky, K.D. Ushinsky and others - opposed the absolutization of their meaning, argued for the need to supplement them with visual and practical methods

Verbal methods make it possible to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems to students and indicate ways to solve them.

Verbal methods are divided into the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture.

Story involves an oral narrative presentation of the content of educational material. This method is used at all stages of school education. Only the nature of the story, its volume, and duration change. According to the goals, there are several types of stories: introductory story, exposition story, conclusion story.

During the story, such methodological techniques as presentation of information, activation of attention, acceleration of memorization (mnemonic, associative), logical comparisons, juxtapositions, highlighting the main thing, summarizing are used.

Explanation. Explanation should be understood as a verbal interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, and phenomena.

Explanation- This is a monologue system of presentation. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying theoretical material, solving chemical, physical, mathematical problems, theorems; when revealing the root causes and consequences in natural phenomena and social life.

Conversation- a dialogical teaching method, in which the teacher, by asking a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what has already been learned. Conversation is one of the oldest methods of didactic work. It was masterfully used by Socrates, from whose name the concept of “Socratic conversation” came.

Heuristic conversation (from the word “eureka” - I find, I open) is widespread. During a heuristic conversation, the teacher, relying on the students’ existing knowledge and practical experience, leads them to understand and assimilate new knowledge, formulate rules and conclusions.

Informative conversations are used to communicate new knowledge. If a conversation precedes the study of new material, it is called introductory or introductory. The purpose of such a conversation is to induce in students a state of readiness to learn new things. Consolidating conversations are used after learning new material.

During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student (individual conversation) or to students of the whole class (frontal conversation).

One type of conversation is an interview.

Discussion. Discussion as a teaching method is based on the exchange of views on a particular issue, and these views reflect the participants’ own opinions or are based on the opinions of others. This method is advisable to use in cases where students have a significant degree of maturity and independence of thinking, and are able to argue, prove and justify their point of view.

Lecture. Narration and explanation are used when studying a relatively small amount of educational material. When working with older students, teachers have to verbally present a significant amount of new knowledge on certain topics, spending 20-30 minutes of the lesson, and sometimes the entire lesson, on this. Such material is presented in the form of a lecture.

“A lecture differs from a story in that the presentation is not interrupted by asking students questions.”

13.Practical methods of teaching students.

Methods of educational work to develop skills and abilities to apply knowledge in practice

In the learning process, it is of great importance to develop in students the skills and abilities to apply the acquired knowledge in practice.

Exercise method. Its essence lies in the fact that students perform multiple actions, i.e. train (practice) in applying the learned material in practice and in this way deepen their knowledge, develop the corresponding skills and abilities, and also develop their thinking and creative abilities. firstly, they should be of a conscious nature and carried out only when students well comprehend and master the material being studied, secondly, they should contribute to the further deepening of knowledge and, thirdly, contribute to the development of the creative abilities of schoolchildren.

Oral exercises contribute to the development of logical thinking, memory, speech and attention of students. They are dynamic and do not require time-consuming record keeping. Writing exercises are used to consolidate knowledge and develop skills in their application. Their use contributes to the development of logical thinking, written language culture, and independence in work. Written exercises can be combined with oral and graphic exercises.

TO graphic exercises include student work on drawing up diagrams, drawings, graphs, technological maps, making albums, posters, stands, making sketches during laboratory and practical work, excursions. Graphic exercises are usually performed simultaneously with written ones and solve common educational problems. Graphic work, depending on the degree of independence of students in their implementation, can be of a reproductive, training or creative nature.

For training and labor exercises m include practical work of students that has a production and labor orientation. The purpose of these exercises is to apply students' theoretical knowledge in their work activities. Such exercises contribute to the labor education of students.

Problem-search exercises that develop students’ ability to guess and intuition are also extremely necessary.

Laboratory works- this is the conduct by students, on the instructions of the teacher, of experiments using instruments, using tools and other technical devices, i.e. students studying any phenomena using special equipment.

Laboratory work is carried out in an illustrative or research manner.

Practical work are carried out after studying large sections, the topics are general in nature. They can be carried out not only in the classroom, but also outside the school (measurements on the ground, work on the school site).

A special type of practical teaching methods are classes with teaching machines, with training machines and tutors.

These techniques include the following:

The teacher’s explanation of the goals and objectives of the upcoming training activity;

Showing the teacher how to perform this or that exercise;

Initial reproduction by students of actions to apply knowledge in practice;

Subsequent training activities of students aimed at improving the acquired practical skills.

14. Forms of organization of “training in primary grades: whole class, group, individual.

Form- nature of activity orientation. The form is based on the leading method. The forms can be specific (lesson, homework, extracurricular activities, consultations, additional classes, knowledge control, etc.) and general.

Lesson- a collective form of education, which is characterized by a constant composition of students, a strict framework of classes, regulation of educational work on the same educational material for everyone.

Elective classes as a form of education were introduced in the late 60s - early 70s. XX century in the process of another unsuccessful attempt to reform school education. These classes are designed to provide a more in-depth study of the subject to everyone, although in practice they are very often used to work with lagging students.

Homework is a form of educational organization in which educational work is characterized by the absence of direct guidance from the teacher.

Extracurricular activities - Olympiads, clubs - should contribute to the best development of students' individual abilities.

The term “teaching techniques” is also widely used in didactics. A teaching method is an integral part or a separate aspect of a teaching method. Looking ahead a little, let's say, for example, that in the exercise method, which is used to develop practical skills in students, the following techniques are distinguished: showing the teacher how to apply the studied material in practice, students reproducing the actions shown by the teacher and subsequent training to improve the practiced skills and abilities.

Frontal Great attention is paid to work in didactics. The need for such classes is determined by uniform curricula, mandatory for all students, and the development of individual abilities and talents of class students. During frontal work, the student manifests himself as an individual, demonstrates his knowledge, erudition, memory, desire and ability to work in a team. At the same time, the teacher sets one or several general, unified tasks for the students. In the process of solving them, the teacher has the opportunity to observe and evaluate the general mood of students in their work, their attitude to the material being studied and relationships with each other. However, this form of work also has its weaknesses, since to a certain extent it averages tasks in volume and is designed for a uniform pace of work. In order to optimally engage students in the classroom, they constantly use individual forms of classes. In this case, each student receives his own task, which he completes independently of the others. Most often these are card tasks, where the teacher has the opportunity to differentiate them (Task cards are attached). Individual lessons are especially important for students with a negative attitude towards learning. there may be instruction cards, cards with passes (especially in geometry), etc. When the task is completed by the student, the teacher should notice this and raise prestige in the eyes of the class. (task cards are attached).

The effectiveness of using individual forms of work in the education of schoolchildren is largely determined by how well the teacher knows the personal qualities of students, the level of their knowledge and skills, motives for learning, educational opportunities, and individual capabilities. Independent work becomes a means of active cognitive Independent work should be feasible for every student. Tasks for students should be given of varying complexity.

15.Pedagogical diagnostics: essence, basic principles, requirements for implementation.

Pedagogical diagnostics goes back as many years as all pedagogical activity. The concept of “pedagogical diagnostics” was proposed by K. Ingankamp by analogy with medical and psychological diagnostics in 1968 within the framework of a scientific project. In terms of its tasks, goals and scope of application, pedagogical diagnostics is independent. She borrowed her methods and much of her way of thinking from psychological diagnostics.

Pedagogical diagnostics today is still more of an actively contested and uncertain program than a mature scientific discipline. It is therefore not surprising that there are different definitions of scientific diagnosis. There are different types of diagnostics of training, i.e. consequences, results achieved, and learning ability. Diagnostics has a broader and deeper meaning than traditional testing of students’ knowledge and skills. The test only states the results without explaining their origin. Diagnostics examines results in connection with the ways and means of achieving them, identifies trends, and the dynamics of the formation of learning products. Diagnostics includes control, verification, evaluation, accumulation of statistical data, their analysis, identification of dynamics, trends, and forecasting of further developments. Thus, pedagogical diagnostics is intended, firstly, to optimize the process of individual learning, secondly, in the interests of society, to ensure the correct determination of learning outcomes and, thirdly, guided by the developed criteria, to minimize errors when transferring students from one educational group to another.

16.Lesson as the main form of organizing the pedagogical process. The main contradictions of the lesson. Typical lesson structure in elementary school.

Lesson- a collective form of education, which is characterized by a constant composition of students, a strict framework of classes, regulation of educational work on the same educational material for everyone. An analysis of lessons in schools shows that their structure and methodology largely depend on the didactic goals and objectives solved in the learning process, as well as on the means that the teacher has at his disposal. All this allows us to talk about the methodological diversity of lessons, which, however, can be classified by type:

Lecture lessons (practically, this is a teacher’s monologue on a given topic, although with the teacher’s certain skill, such lessons take on the character of a conversation);

Laboratory (practical) classes (lessons of this kind are usually devoted to developing skills and abilities);

Lessons in testing and assessing knowledge (tests, testing);

Combined lessons are conducted according to any of the following schemes:

Repetition of what has been covered - students’ reproduction of previously covered material, checking homework, oral and written questioning;

Mastering new material; at this stage, new material is presented by the teacher, or “obtained” in the process of students’ independent work with literature;

Development of skills and abilities to apply knowledge in practice (most often - solving problems on new material);

Handing out homework.

Lesson structure. Variety of lesson structures

The structure of a lesson is a set of different options for interactions between the elements of a lesson that arises in the learning process and ensures its purposeful effectiveness.

Lesson structure for learning new material:

The structure of the lesson to consolidate and develop knowledge, skills and abilities:

Structure of a lesson on applying knowledge, skills and abilities:

Structure of a repeating and generalizing lesson:

The structure of a combined lesson (it usually has one or more didactic goals):

Organization of the beginning of the lesson; checking homework, setting lesson goals; preparing students to perceive new educational material, i.e. updating knowledge and practical and mental skills; studying new material, including explanation; consolidation of the material studied in this lesson and previously covered, related to the new one; generalization and systematization of knowledge and skills, connection of new ones with previously acquired and formed ones; summarizing the results of the lesson; homework assignment; preparation (preliminary work) necessary for students to study a new topic (not always).

17. Non-traditional lessons in elementary school. Types. Main characteristics.

These are, in particular, seminar lessons, tests, lectures, competitions, travel, integrated lessons, conference lessons, debates, fairy tale lessons, thematic game lessons, thanks to which students learn the program material faster and better.

individual work with them.

And, finally, the possibility of presenting tasks and exercises primarily in a playful form, which is most accessible to children at the stage of the change in leading activity characteristic of the first months of a child’s stay at school (the transition from play activity to educational activity), helps to smooth out and shorten the adaptation period.

The introduction of non-traditional teaching methods into the primary school curriculum aims to expand the educational process and, without breaking away from the problems of education and upbringing, develop the personal qualities of the child.

One of the famous non-traditional types of lessons is the grammar game ¾ crossword puzzle

In the classroom, crossword puzzles are advisable not to test students' erudition, but to better assimilate factual material.

Logical crossword puzzles are selected based on the age and psychological characteristics of students.

The process of guessing, according to modern teachers,

is a kind of gymnastics that mobilizes and trains the child’s mental strength. Guessing riddles sharpens and disciplines the mind, teaching children clear logic, reasoning and proof. Guessing riddles can be considered a creative process, and the riddle itself can be considered a creative task.

In addition, music lessons are one of the most effective ways to develop sound-pitch culture and rhythmic hearing, which is necessary when perceiving foreign speech. Music also has a general tonic effect, which increases the effectiveness of classes.

An excursion, which is conducted according to the natural history program in primary grades ¾, is another type of non-traditional lesson. A special feature of the excursion lesson is that the learning process is not carried out in a classroom setting, but in nature, during the students’ direct perception of its objects and phenomena.

Excursion lessons have a huge educational impact on children.

The main method of learning during an excursion lesson is observation of objects and natural phenomena and visible relationships and dependencies between them.

Lessons-excursions are classified according to two criteria: by the volume of content of the academic subject (single-topic, multi-topic) and by its place in the structure of the section (introductory, current, final).

1. Organization of the class 2. Testing of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities. 3. Setting the goals and tasks of the lesson. General motivation.

4. Assimilation of new knowledge, skills and abilities. 5. Generalization and systematization of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities. 6. Correlation of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities. 7. Homework. 8. Lesson summary.

18.Control in the education of younger schoolchildren. The main functions of pedagogical control at school. Types, methods and forms of organizing control. Correlation between marks and grades.

Control how the educational action is carried out not as a check of the quality of assimilation based on the final result of the educational activity, but as an action that goes along its course and is carried out by the student himself, actively monitoring the accuracy of his mental thoughts

operations.

Control- This is also a way to obtain information about the quality of the educational process.

Control performs teaching, diagnostic, educational, developmental, prognostic and orienting functions.

The purpose of the controlling (control) function is to establish feedback (external: student - teacher and internal: student - student), as well as taking into account the results of control.

Educational function control is to improve knowledge and skills, their systematization.

Control also contributes to the generalization and systematization of knowledge.

Diagnostic function- obtaining information about errors, shortcomings and gaps in the knowledge and skills of students and the causes of their difficulties in mastering educational material, the number and nature of errors.

Prognostic the verification function serves to obtain advanced information about the educational process.

Developmental function control consists of stimulating the cognitive activity of students and developing their creative abilities. In the process of control, speech, memory, attention, imagination, will and thinking of schoolchildren develop, and motives for cognitive activity are formed.

Orienting function- obtaining information about the degree to which the learning goal has been achieved by an individual student and the class as a whole - how much has been learned and how deeply the educational material has been studied.

Educational function control consists of instilling in students a responsible attitude to learning, discipline, accuracy, and honesty.

Emotional function manifests itself in the fact that any type of assessment (including grades) creates a certain emotional reaction of the student.

The social function is manifested in the requirements imposed by society on the level of preparation of a child of primary school age.

Control requirements: Comprehensiveness, Individuality. Systematicity. Stimulating nature.

There are five basic principles of control: objectivity; systematic; visibility; comprehensiveness; educational character.

In modern pedagogy, the following types of control are distinguished:- preliminary; - current; - thematic; - milestone (stage-by-stage); - final; - final.

Depending on what is being controlled over the results of students’ activities, the following three types of control are distinguished.

External(carried out by the teacher over the student’s activities). Mutual(carried out by the student on the activities of a friend). Self-control(carried out by the student on his own activities).

Knowledge requirements should be as follows:

Unambiguity, i.e. the stated goal of education must be clearly understood by everyone; diagnosticity, i.e. it must be possible to verify the achievement of the set goal; content, i.e. the goal should reflect what the student received during the learning process.

In school practice, there are several traditional forms of monitoring students’ knowledge and skills:

Dictation; - brief independent work; - written test;

Control laboratory work; - oral test on the studied topic; - classic oral questioning at the board.

Non-traditional forms of monitoring students' knowledge and skills:

+ Matrix control. The essence of matrix control is as follows. Students are given different versions of pre-prepared matrices with questions, and each of them selects only one correct answer from all the answers proposed in the matrix, marking it with an “x” or “+” sign. At the end of the work, the teacher collects matrices with student answers and compares them with the control matrix, overlaying it one by one on all matrices with student answers. Quiz-test (chips are given)

The purpose of the teacher’s assessment activities is to monitor students’ progress and develop adequate self-esteem in them.

The result of the teacher’s act of evaluating the results of a student’s educational activity is an assessment, which, depending on the level and method of reflecting the relationship, can be expressed by the sign and intensity of the emotional experience, its verbal version, a value judgment, a mark (B.G. Ananyev, X. Century, G.I. Shchukina, N.V. Kuzmina).

B.G. Ananyev in his fundamental work “Psychology of Pedagogical Assessment” writes: “The mental development of a child at school is carried out by the teacher not only through the subject and teaching methods,

but also through assessment, which represents the fact of the most direct guidance of the student.”

The essence of assessing the success of a student’s learning, according to L.S. Vygotsky, is that “every action should return to the child in the form of an impression of its action on others.”

According to B.G. Ananyev’s assessment can be: orienting, influencing the mental work of the student, stimulating, influencing the effective-volitional sphere of education - under direct influence.

There is also an opposite point of view in the pedagogical community - grades in school (especially in elementary school) are not needed. So

believes, for example, the most famous teacher of our time Sh.A. Amo-nashvili.

His arguments against grades: 1. Grades have always concentrated and continue to concentrate all the power of an adult (teacher and parent) over the child. 2. The mark expresses the school's recognition of its powerlessness.

3. The mark is a “currency bill” in the school and family markets. 4. Marking is a way for children to compete. 5. The mark is a surrogate for the relationship between the teacher and the child. "The Destructive Two"

19. Education in the structure of the pedagogical process of primary school.

Education is a universal process. Education is an objective process. Education is a multidimensional process. The optimal path to success is a humanistic educational system.

Thus, education is both a complex process of mastering the spiritual and socio-historical heritage of the nation, and a type of pedagogical activity, and the great art of improving human nature, and a branch of science - pedagogy.

In pedagogy, the term “education” is used in three senses:

In the broad social, when education is considered as a social phenomenon, as a process of formation of the student’s personality under the influence of the entire social surrounding reality. In this case, the leading role is played by the educational forces of society, its social institutions, public organizations, and means of mass influence;

In a broad pedagogical sense, when we mean the educational process in the system of special educational institutions. The school studies the social environment and influences the environment through people - children, parents, teachers. This is the function of improving society by the school;

In a narrow pedagogical context, when we mean the actual educational work carried out with students of a particular educational institution.

The task of education- organize interaction that would have maximum educational potential.

The purpose of education is to solve humanitarian problems.

These functions can be formulated briefly: creative and cultural; socialization and adaptation; human-forming.

Principles of humanistic education: 1. Commitment. The principles of education are not advice or recommendations; they require mandatory and complete implementation into practice. 2. Complexity. The principles carry with them the requirement of complexity, which presupposes their simultaneous, and not alternate, isolated application at all stages of the educational process. The principles are not used in a chain, but frontally and all at once. 3. Equivalence. The principle of including the individual in meaningful activities. The third principle of education is principle of personal functioning. The principle of subjective control. conformity with nature.

20. Peer society as a factor in developing the child’s personality traits. Educational system of the school.

Educational system- a group of components of social reality that ensure the spiritual and moral formation and creative development of the individual.

With this definition, the educational system looks like this.

Now many teachers both in Russia and abroad have come to the conclusion that the field of education is a special field, and it cannot be considered as an addition to education.

The core of the educational system is the educational team. This is a kind of unity of two teams - teaching and student.

Its goal and object is a complete personality. It includes the following blocks: goals; aggregate subject; activity and communication; relationship; developed environment; control.

The main functions of the school educational system:

Integrating; regulating; developing.

Integrating leads to the combination into one whole of previously separate, inconsistent educational influences. The regulatory function is aimed at streamlining pedagogical processes and managing them. The developmental function ensures the dynamics of the system, which is expressed, on the one hand, in the optimization of its functioning, on the other, in its progressive development, renewal, and improvement.

Observations in recent years suggest the presence of a number of new functions of school educational systems:

Protection; adjustments; compensation.

signs of a humanistic educational system at school: 1. The presence of a “small” school, i.e. own concept of education, reflecting its present and future and accepted by both teachers and students.2. Healthy lifestyle of the team.3. Focus on universal human values.4. Event-based nature of large collective affairs.5. The presence of “free development zones”. 6. Design of the school according to the principle “And the walls educate.”

7. Inclusion of the environment into the school and the school into the environment. 8. Reasonable resolution of emerging conflicts using internal forces. 9. The humanistic nature of interpersonal relationships between children and adults: mutual trust, goodwill in the team of the institution.

10. Attentiveness, goodwill, desire to help both comrades and strangers; a sense of belonging to the school community, a feeling of security and comfort.

Formationeducational system of the school:

The first stage is the formation of the system. The second stage is the stage of stabilization of school life.

ST system. Shatsky. SM system. Rives and N.P. Shulman

21. Effective methods of organizing the educational process in primary school.

In the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” the word “method” is deciphered as a set of single-purpose and similar techniques. N.I. Boldyrev in his book “Methods of educational work at school” reveals the method as a path or method of achieving a goal.

In authoritarian pedagogy, teaching methods were interpreted as methods of educational influence. For example, T.A. Ilyina in “Pedagogy” in 1984 gave the following definition: “Methods of educational influence on students, or methods of education, mean ways of influence of the educator on the consciousness, will and feelings of students in order to form in them the beliefs and skills of communist behavior.”

There are 3 groups of methods corresponding to the purposeful activities of educators and the organized purposeful activities of students:

1. Methods of persuasion: - showing, telling the essence of the matter with an explanation of its importance and usefulness; - personal example, personal demonstration; - practical activities with individual students, practical assistance to each (training method); - encouragement; - punishment; - condemnation; - approval.

2. Methods of exercise: - practical independent activity of students, when the idea is given by the teacher; - creative collective search, originality in the educational process.

3. Methods of indirect influence on students.

The situation of advances by trust (A.S. Makarenko)

The situation of unconstrained compulsion (T.E. Konnikova) The situation of free choice (O.S. Bogdanova, V.A. Karakovsky). Situation of competition (A.N. Lutoshkin) Situation of correlation (H.J. Liimets) Situation of success (O.S. Gazman, V.A. Karakovsky, A.S. Belkin) Situation of creativity (V.A. Karakovsky).

22. Forms of organizing the educational process for junior schoolchildren.

The forms of educational work are very diverse and dynamic over time. According to the Philosophical Dictionary, form is a method of organization and mode of existence of an object, process, phenomenon. The form of educational work is a way of organizing the educational process, reflecting the internal connection of its elements and characterizing the relationship between teachers and students. In the pedagogical literature, a classification of forms of education is usually given depending on how students are organized: - mass (frontal); - group (circle); - individual.

There is also another classification - depending on the methods of educational influence:

Verbal (lectures, conferences); - practical (excursions, competitions); - visual (museums, panels).

Forms of educational work are also distinguished by the time of exposure: - lesson; - extracurricular (including extracurricular).

The effectiveness of various forms of educational work is determined by the population, time of year, age of the children and the personality of the teacher.

To the means of education in the narrow sense of the word includes books, films, works of art, the living word of a teacher and everything that is necessary for educational purposes. In a broad sense, to means of education include types of activities that contribute to the formation of personality: study, socially useful work, games, club work, sports activities, amateur artistic activities. The choice of means is determined by the age of the students, the possibilities of society, the taste of the children, and the inclinations of the teacher.

Reception of education - this is an integral part of the method. This is only a link in the educational process, a single, one-act action. For example, the encouragement method includes the following techniques: approval, praise, gratitude, reward. And the method of persuasion is suggestion, explanation, conversation. Method of punishment may include such techniques as remark, warning, reprimand, severe reprimand.

All parenting techniques can be divided into two groups.

1. Techniques that correct behavior and inspire students - joy, gratitude, etc.

2. Techniques that help correct behavior by awakening the child’s negative feelings - shame, repentance, etc. Even Russian folk wisdom suggests the viability of these techniques: “Children are punished with shame, not with a whip.” This group of techniques is called inhibitory, because they help overcome negative qualities and clear the ground for the development of positive ones. Based on negative feelings, children have the intention to refrain from unseemly actions.

bring it out?" Wants to start recording. “Don’t rush to write it down,”
says the father. Pause. “What,” says the girl, “if the proof-
find out the equality of these triangles? (shows). But what
will this work out? No, that's not it." Thinks for a long time, concentrated
looks at the drawing, sometimes traces some details with a pencil
squares. The father decides to help. “First of all, understand clearly that
you need to determine what is given to you. Mark this on the drawing -
same." The student added some data to the drawing. The drawing became
look different. Looks at the drawing, runs a pencil along
sides of the rectangle, along the legs of the triangle. However, not
grasps the drawing as a whole and does not see the connection between its elements
tami. This is the most interesting and difficult moment. He continued
I huddled for a few minutes. Father helps: “What is the main question
tasks?" Student: “Find what the sides of the rectangle are equal to.”
ka. And it is known that the sides of a rectangle have a ratio of 5:2,
and the hypotenuse of the triangle is 45 cm.” Looks inquisitively at
drawing. “Now,” says the father, “look at the drawing in the whole
scrap. For convenience, turn it so that ZB is at the top and hy-
Potenuse base. Wouldn't the drawing, by its appearance, suggest the path?
solutions?" The student actually turned the drawing the way she wanted.
advised, looks at him carefully. In front of her is equal-
defined right triangle. He thinks for a long time in silence. "If
If I knew what AF and SK are equal to, I would know everything else,”
the student says thoughtfully. “That’s right,” says the father.
But this can be seen from the drawing. Look carefully and
think." The parent gave the student the opportunity to think for about 5 minutes, but
It did not help. “Please note that AF and MF are
by the sides of the same triangle AMF, from this
a solution can be extracted." The student looked attentively and inquisitively.
writes on the drawing, begins to make additions to it, making
mark with an arc /.A, she put “45°” in it and also wrote it in
ZAMF. The drawing has been enriched. The student reasons: “So, a hundred
side AF is equal to side MF; that means AF is equal to 5 parts. Note-
In the same way we prove that SC is also equal to 5 parts.
This means that the hypotenuse has 12 parts, in which the length of the hundred is expressed.
ron of the rectangle, which means that one part is equal (and the girl is
quickly produces an effect) 15/h cm. Now the problem is solved! " -
she says happily.
What is noteworthy about this fact is that the father did not rush
tried to suggest a ready-made solution, but only directed the thought
students. From the student’s subsequent actions, one could infer
It is clear that she solved the problem, consciously and quickly checked
solution.
When analyzing the complex thinking processes of students, when
they experience difficulties and try to overcome them pedagogically
It is useful to recall L. N. Tolstoy’s reasoning about the process
all the thinking of children. First of all, he says that in mathematics
It is easiest for mathematics to guide the process of generalization in children, in

Introduction

1. The concept of the learning process, its goals and functions

2. Principles of training

Introduction

An important pedagogical pattern is the dependence of the content of teaching, methods, means and forms on the goals of education and training set by society, on the goals of a particular school. The lack of a clear goal turns a coherent, logical learning process into a random set of actions of teachers and students when mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, leads to a violation of consistency and systematicity in knowledge, which does not contribute to the formation of a scientific worldview, and also complicates the management of the educational process.

Education is the systematic and systematic work of a teacher with students, based on the implementation and consolidation of changes in their knowledge, attitudes, behavior and in the personality itself under the influence of teaching, mastery of knowledge and values, as well as one’s own practical activities. Teaching is a purposeful activity, which implies the teacher's intention to stimulate learning as a subjective activity of the students themselves.

Education is a purposeful process of organizing and stimulating the active educational and cognitive activity of students to master scientific knowledge, skills, and development of creative abilities, worldview, moral and aesthetic views and beliefs.

The concept of the learning process, its goals and functions

Under training understand the active, purposeful cognitive activity of a student under the guidance of a teacher, as a result of which the student acquires a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, develops an interest in learning, develops cognitive and creative abilities and needs, as well as moral qualities of the individual.

There are several definitions of the concept of “learning process”.

“The learning process is the movement of a student under the guidance of a teacher along the path of mastering knowledge” (N.V. Savin).

“The learning process is a complex unity of the teacher’s activities and the activities of students, aimed at a common goal - equipping students with knowledge, abilities, skills, their development and education” (G. I. Shchukina).

“The learning process is a purposeful interaction between a teacher and students, during which the tasks of educating students are solved” (Yu. K. Babansky).

Different understandings of the learning process indicate that this is a rather complex phenomenon. If we generalize all the above concepts, then learning process can be defined as the interaction of a teacher and students, in which students, with the help and under the guidance of a teacher, realize the motives of their cognitive activity, master a system of scientific knowledge about the world around them and form a scientific worldview, comprehensively develop intelligence and the ability to learn, as well as moral qualities and value guidelines in accordance with personal and public interests and needs.

The learning process is characterized by the following features:

a) purposefulness;

b) integrity;

c) two-sidedness;

c) joint activities of teacher and students;

d) management of the development and education of students;

e) organization and management of this process.

Thus, pedagogical categories "education" And "learning process"- not identical concepts. Category "education" defines a phenomenon, while a concept "learning process"(or “educational process”) is the development of learning in time and space, a sequential change of stages of learning.

The objectives of the learning process are:

Stimulating educational and cognitive activity of students;

Formation of cognitive needs;

Organization of cognitive activity of students to master scientific knowledge, skills and abilities;

Development of cognitive and creative abilities of students;

Formation of educational skills for subsequent self-education and creative activity;

Formation of a scientific worldview and education of moral and aesthetic culture.

Contradictions and patterns of the educational process determine its functions. The holistic learning process serves a number of important functions.

Firstly, this educational function. In accordance with it, the main purpose of the learning process is to:

To equip students with a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities in accordance with the accepted education standard;

Teach to creatively use this knowledge, skills and abilities in practical activities;

Teach to independently acquire knowledge;

Expand your general horizons to choose a further path to education and professional self-determination.

Secondly, developmental function training. In the process of mastering the system of knowledge, skills and abilities, the following develops:

Logical thinking (abstraction, concretization, comparison, analysis, generalization, juxtaposition, etc.);

Imaginations;

Various types of memory (auditory, visual, logical, associative, emotional, etc.);

Qualities of mind (inquisitiveness, flexibility, criticality, creativity, depth, breadth, independence);

Speech (vocabulary, imagery, clarity and accuracy of expression);

Cognitive interest and cognitive needs;

Sensory and motor spheres.

Thus, the implementation of this learning function ensures a person’s developed intellect, creates conditions for constant self-education, reasonable organization of intellectual activity, conscious professional education, and creativity.

Third, educational function training. The learning process as a process of interaction between teacher and students objectively has an educational character and creates conditions not only for mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, mental development of the individual, but also for the education and socialization of the individual. The educational function is manifested in providing:

The student’s awareness of his educational activities as socially significant;

Formation of his moral and value guidelines in the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities;

Education of moral qualities of the individual;

Formation of positive motives for learning;

Forming the experience of communication between students and cooperation with teachers in the educational process;

The educational impact of the teacher's personality as a role model.

Thus, by mastering knowledge about the surrounding reality and about himself, the student acquires the ability to make decisions that regulate his attitude to reality. At the same time, he learns moral, social and aesthetic values ​​and, experiencing them, forms his attitude towards them and creates a system of values ​​that guides his practical activities.

Principles of training

Principles of training(didactic principles) are the basic (general, guiding) provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its goals and laws.

The principles of learning characterize the ways of using laws and patterns in accordance with intended goals.

The principles of teaching, by their origin, are a theoretical generalization of pedagogical practice. They are objective in nature and arise from practical experience. Therefore, principles are guidelines that govern activities in the learning process of people. They cover all aspects of the learning process.

At the same time, the principles are subjective in nature, since they are reflected in the teacher’s mind in different ways, with varying degrees of completeness and accuracy.

An incorrect understanding of the principles of learning or ignorance of them, or the inability to follow their requirements do not negate their existence, but make the learning process unscientific, ineffective, and contradictory.

Compliance with the principles of learning is the most important condition for the effectiveness of the learning process, an indicator of the pedagogical culture of the teacher.

The history of the development of school and pedagogy shows how, under the influence of changing life requirements, the principles of teaching change, that is, the principles of teaching are historical in nature. Some principles disappear, others appear. This suggests that didactics must sensitively capture changes in society’s requirements for education and respond to them in a timely manner, that is, build a system of teaching principles that would correctly point the way to achieving the learning goal.

Scientists have long paid great attention to substantiating the principles of learning. The first attempts in this direction were made by J. A. Komensky, J.-J. Russo, I. G. Pestalozzi. Y. A. Komensky formulated and substantiated such teaching principles as the principle of conformity to nature, strength, accessibility, systematicity, etc.

K. D. Ushinsky attached great importance to the principles of education. They most fully disclosed the didactic principles:

Learning should be challenging for students, neither too difficult nor too easy;

Education should in every possible way develop children’s independence, activity, and initiative;

Order and systematicity are one of the main conditions for success in learning; the school should provide sufficiently deep and thorough knowledge;

Education should be conducted in accordance with nature, in accordance with the psychological characteristics of students;

The teaching of any subject must certainly proceed in such a way that the student’s share of work remains exactly as much work as the young forces can overcome.

The formulations and number of principles changed in subsequent decades (Yu. K. Babansky, M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov, T. A. Ilyina, M. N. Skatkin, G. I. Shchukina, etc.). This is the result of the fact that the objective laws of the pedagogical process have not yet been fully discovered.

In classical didactics, the following didactic principles are considered the most generally accepted: scientific character, clarity, accessibility, awareness and activity, systematicity and consistency, strength, connection between theory and practice.

The principle of scientific teaching presupposes compliance of the content of education with the level of development of modern science and technology, the experience accumulated by world civilization. This principle requires that in order for students to assimilate, they are offered genuine, firmly established knowledge by science (objective scientific facts, concepts, theories, teachings, laws, patterns, the latest discoveries in various fields of human knowledge) and at the same time use teaching methods that are similar in nature to to the methods of the science being studied.

The scientific principle is based on a number of laws: the world is knowable, and an objectively correct picture of the development of the world is provided by knowledge tested by practice; science plays an increasingly significant role in human life; The scientific nature of teaching is ensured primarily through the content of education.

The principle of accessibility. The principle of accessibility requires that the content, volume of what is studied and methods of studying it correspond to the level of intellectual, moral, aesthetic development of students, their ability to assimilate the proposed material.

If the content of the material being studied is too complicated, students' motivation for learning decreases, their volitional efforts quickly weaken, their performance decreases sharply, and excessive fatigue appears.

At the same time, the principle of accessibility does not mean that the content of training should be simplified and extremely elementary. Research and practice show that with simplified content, interest in learning decreases, the necessary volitional efforts are not formed, and the desired development of educational performance does not occur. During the learning process, its developmental function is poorly realized.

The principle of consciousness and activity. The principle of consciousness and activity in learning requires the conscious assimilation of knowledge in the process of active cognitive and practical activity. Consciousness in learning is a positive attitude of students towards learning, their understanding of the essence of the problems being studied, and their conviction in the significance of the knowledge acquired. The conscious assimilation of knowledge by students depends on a number of conditions and factors: motives for learning, the level and nature of cognitive activity, the organization of the educational process, the methods and means of teaching used, etc. The activity of students is their intensive mental and practical activity in the learning process. Activity acts as a prerequisite, condition and result of the conscious acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities.

This principle is based on the following laws: the value of human education consists of deeply and independently meaningful knowledge acquired through intense exertion of one’s own mental activity; Students’ own cognitive activity has a decisive influence on the strength, depth and pace of mastery of educational material and is an important factor in learning ability.

The principle of visibility. One of the first in the history of pedagogy was the principle of visibility. It has been established that the effectiveness of learning depends on the degree to which all human senses are involved in perception. The more diverse the sensory perceptions of educational material, the more firmly it is assimilated. This pattern has long found its expression in the didactic principle of visibility.

Visibility in didactics is understood more broadly than direct visual perception. It also includes perception through motor, tactile, auditory, and taste sensations.

A significant contribution to the substantiation of this principle was made by Ya. A. Komensky, I. G. Pestalozzi, K. D. Ushinsky, L. V. Zankov and others.

The ways of implementing this principle are formulated by Ya. A. Komensky in the “Golden Rule of Didactics”: “Everything that is possible should be provided for perception by the senses, namely: what is visible - for perception by sight; what is heard - by hearing; smells - by smell; subject to taste - by bite; accessible to touch - by touching. If any objects and phenomena can be immediately perceived by several senses - provide them to several senses."

I. G. Pestalozzi showed that it is necessary to combine the use of visualization with the special mental formation of concepts. K. D. Ushinsky revealed the importance of visual sensations for the development of students’ speech. L.V. Zankov revealed possible options for combining words and visualization. If the efficiency of auditory perception of information is 15%, and visual - 25%, then their simultaneous inclusion in the learning process increases the efficiency of perception to 65%.

The principle of visibility in teaching is implemented by demonstrating the objects being studied, illustrating processes and phenomena, observing ongoing phenomena and processes in classrooms and laboratories, in natural conditions, in labor and production activities.

Visual aids include:

natural objects: plants, animals, natural and industrial objects, the work of people and students themselves;

voluminous visual aids: models, mock-ups, dummies, herbariums, etc.;

visual teaching aids: paintings, photographs, filmstrips, drawings;

symbolic visual aids: maps, diagrams, tables, drawings, etc.;

audiovisual media: films, tape recordings, television programs, computer equipment;

self-made "reference signals" in the form of notes, diagrams, drawings, tables, sketches, etc.

Thanks to the use of visual aids, students develop an interest in learning, develop observation skills, attention, thinking, and knowledge acquires personal meaning.

The principle of systematicity and consistency. The principle of systematicity and consistency in teaching involves teaching and learning knowledge in a certain order, system. It requires a logical structure of both the content and the learning process.

The principle of systematicity and consistency is based on a number of laws: a person only has effective knowledge when a clear picture of the existing world is reflected in his consciousness; the development process of students slows down if there is no system and consistency in training; Only a certain way of organizing training is a universal means of forming a system of scientific knowledge.

The principle of strength. The principle of the strength of knowledge assimilation presupposes its stable consolidation in the memory of students. This principle is based on the natural principles established by science: the strength of assimilation of educational material depends on objective factors (content of the material, its structure, teaching methods, etc.) and the subjective attitude of students to this knowledge, training, and the teacher; Memory is selective in nature, so educational material that is important and interesting to students is more firmly consolidated and retained longer.

The principle of educational training. The principle of educational learning reflects the objective regularity of the learning process. There can be no learning outside of education. Even if the teacher does not set a special goal to have an educational impact on students, he educates them through the content of educational material, his attitude to the imparted knowledge, the methods used to organize the cognitive activity of students, and his personal qualities. This educational impact is significantly enhanced if the teacher sets an appropriate task and strives to effectively use all the means at his disposal for these purposes.

The principle of connection between theory and practice. The principle of connection between theory and practice suggests that the study of scientific problems is carried out in close connection with the discovery of the most important ways of using them in life. In this case, students develop a truly scientific view of life phenomena and form a scientific worldview.

This principle is based on the following laws: practice is the criterion of truth, the source of knowledge and the area of ​​application of theoretical results; practice checks, confirms and guides the quality of teaching; The more the knowledge acquired by students interacts with life, is applied in practice, and is used to transform surrounding processes and phenomena, the higher the awareness of learning and interest in it.

The principle of matching training to the age and individual characteristics of students. The principle of appropriateness of training to age and individual characteristics (the principle of a personal approach to training) requires that the content, forms and methods of training correspond to the age stages and individual development of students. The level of cognitive capabilities and personal development determines the organization of educational activities. It is important to take into account the characteristics of thinking, memory, stability of attention, temperament, character, and interests of students.

There are two main ways to take into account individual characteristics: an individual approach (educational work is carried out according to a single program with everyone, while individualizing the forms and methods of working with each) and differentiation (dividing students into homogeneous groups according to abilities, capabilities, interests, etc. and working with them according to different programs). Until the 90s. XX century The main focus of the school's work was an individual approach. Currently, priority is given to differentiation of instruction. In the real learning process, the principles act in conjunction with each other. One cannot either overestimate or underestimate one or another principle, as this leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of training. Only in combination do they ensure the successful definition of tasks, the choice of content, methods, means, forms of teaching and allow them to effectively solve the problems of a modern school.

Conclusion

Education is the purposeful cognitive activity of a student under the guidance of a teacher, the purpose of which is for the student to acquire a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, to develop his interest in learning, to develop cognitive and creative abilities, as well as moral qualities of the individual.

The objectives of the learning process are: stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of students; formation of cognitive needs; organization of cognitive activity of students to master scientific knowledge, skills and abilities; development of cognitive and creative abilities of students; formation of educational skills for subsequent self-education and creative activity; formation of a scientific worldview and education of moral and aesthetic culture.

The principles of teaching are the basic provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its goals and patterns.

The main principles of training are: the principle of scientific training, the principle of accessibility, the principle of consciousness and activity, the principle of clarity, the principle of systematicity and consistency, the principle of the strength of knowledge acquisition, the principle of educational training, the principle of connecting theory with practice and the principle of matching training to the age and individual characteristics of students.

These didactic principles are generally accepted and form the basis of the traditional educational system. Classical didactic principles help in determining learning goals, and can also serve as a guide for the teacher in specific teaching situations in the classroom.

Bibliography

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