In psychological teachings of different eras. History of the development of developmental psychology as a science. Psychological knowledge in the ancient period

After studying Chapter 3, the bachelor should:

know

Patterns of physiological and mental development and features of their manifestation in the educational process at different age periods;

be able to

take into account the peculiarities of individual development of students in pedagogical interaction;
design the educational process using modern technologies that correspond to general and specific patterns and characteristics of age-related personal development;

own

Methods of providing psychological and pedagogical support and support.

Patterns of human mental development and age periodization

The emergence of developmental and developmental psychology. Factors and driving forces of development. The problem of age periodization.

The emergence of developmental and developmental psychology

In many teachings of past eras (in Antiquity, in the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance), the most important questions of the mental development of children have already been raised.

In the works of the ancient Greek scientists Heraclitus, Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, issues and factors in the formation of the behavior and personality of children, the development of their thinking and abilities were discussed. It was in their works that the idea of harmonious human development was first formulated.

During the Middle Ages, from the 3rd to the 14th centuries, more attention was paid to the formation of a socially adapted personality, the education of the required personality qualities, the study of cognitive processes and methods of influencing the child.

During the Renaissance (E. Rotterdamsky, J. A. Comenius), the issues of organizing education, teaching based on humanistic principles, taking into account the individual characteristics of children and their interests came to the fore.

In the studies of historians and philosophers of the Enlightenment era R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, J. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau discussed the problem of hereditary and environmental factors and their influence on the development of the child. It was during this period that two extreme positions emerged in understanding the driving forces of human development. These ideas, of course, in a significantly transformed form, can be found in the works of psychologists in subsequent years and even in the works of modern authors. This nativism – understanding of child development as determined by nature, heredity and internal forces, presented in the works of J.-J. Rousseau - and empiricism , where the decisive importance of training, experience, and external factors in the development of a child was proclaimed. The founder of this direction is J. Locke.

Over time, knowledge accumulated, but in most works the child was described as a kind of being devoid of activity and his own opinion, which, with proper and skillful guidance, can be largely shaped at the request of an adult.

Only in the second half of the 19th century. The prerequisites for the emergence of childhood psychology as a separate science are gradually beginning to take shape. The period of the emergence of developmental psychology (the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century) is a most interesting, in many ways a turning point in the history of mankind: industry is actively developing, all social life is changing, serious transformations are taking place in various sciences. By and large, it was during this period that new directions were laid in the development of many sciences, especially the human sciences.

The prerequisites for the emergence of developmental psychology were the following.

1. The development of society and production, which required a new organization of education. A transition is gradually taking place from individual training to universal mass training, without which industrial production cannot develop, which means there is an urgent need to develop new methods of working with groups of children.
2. Scientific ideas and discoveries that during this period changed the view of man as a whole, as well as the tasks of childhood as a life stage. One of the central scientific discoveries in this regard can be called the discovery of Charles Darwin, whose evolutionary biological theory introduced the idea of development, the genesis of the psyche, the idea of the psyche passing through a number of regular stages.
3. New objective methods of research and experimentation in psychology are emerging. The method of introspection (self-observation), used previously, could not be used to study the psyche of children. Therefore, the emergence of objective methods in psychology was such an important stage in its development.

Many researchers consider the starting point for the development of developmental psychology as a science to be the book of the German biologist W. Preyer, “The Soul of a Child,” published in 1882. In his work, he describes the results of observations of his own child from 1 to 3 years old, paying attention to the development of his senses, will, reason, and language. Despite the fact that observations of the development of children were carried out even before the appearance of V. Preyer’s book, his main merit was the introduction into psychology of the method of objective observation of a child; a similar method was previously used only in the natural sciences. It is from this moment that childhood research becomes systematic.

Developmental psychology and developmental psychology are historically two closely interrelated sciences. Developmental psychology can be called the “successor” of genetic psychology. Genetic psychology, or developmental psychology, is primarily interested in the emergence and development of mental processes. This science analyzes the formation of mental processes, based on the results of various studies, including those conducted with the participation of children, but children themselves are not the subject of the study of developmental psychology.

Age-related psychology – this is the doctrine of the periods of child development, their changes and transitions from one age to another , as well as general patterns and trends of these transitions. That is, children and child development at various age stages are the subject of developmental psychology. In the same time they have one object of study – This is the mental development of a person.

In many ways, the distinction between developmental and developmental psychology suggests that the very subject of child psychology has changed over time.

Developmental psychology is closely related to many branches of psychology. Thus, it is united with general psychology by basic ideas about the psyche, methods used in research, as well as a system of basic concepts.

Developmental psychology has a lot in common with educational psychology; we can find a particularly close interweaving of these two sciences in Russian history, reflected in the works of P. P. Blonsky, P. F. Kapterev, A. P. Nechaev, later L. S. Vygotsky and other thinkers of the early 20th century. These are ideas for organizing a scientific approach to teaching and upbringing that takes into account the characteristics of child development. The close connection of these sciences is explained by the common object of research, while the subject of educational psychology is the training and education of the subject in the process of the purposeful influence of the teacher.

The mental development of a person occurs within various social communities - families, peer groups, organized groups, etc. As a subject of communication and interaction, the developing individual is of interest to social psychology.

Developmental psychology has common areas for consideration with such branches of psychology as clinical psychology and pathopsychology. In these sciences there is also a developing individual, but his development is considered from the point of view of emerging disorders.

The goal of developmental psychology is to study the development of a healthy person in the process of ontogenesis.

Developmental psychology has many points of intersection with various sciences: medicine, pedagogy, ethnography, cultural studies, etc.

Martsinkovskaya T. D. History of child psychology. M., 1998. P. 3-59.

Martsinkovskaya Tatyana Davidovna

History of child psychology: Textbook for students. ped. universities – M.: Humanitarian. ed. center VLADOS, 1998. –272 pp.

The patterns of formation of views on the child’s psyche from the ancient period to our time are revealed. The complex path of development of scientific ideas is considered in connection with social aspirations and value orientations

For students of pedagogical universities

INTRODUCTION 2

Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM OF EDUCATION OF A CHILD IN PSYCHOLOGICAL TEACHINGS OF ANCIENTITY, THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE 4

Developmental psychology of Ancient Greece 4

An approach to the mental development of children during the Hellenistic period 12

Psychological aspects of teaching and raising children during the Middle Ages 18

Issues of psychological development of children during the Renaissance 22

Chapter 2. APPROACH TO PROBLEMS OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY IN PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 24

Research on the psychological development of children in modern times 24

Separation of child psychology into an independent field of psychological science 34

Chapter 3 43

DEVELOPMENT OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY IN THE FIRST DECADES OF THE XX CENTURY 43

Stanley Hall and his concept of pedology 43

Basic theories of child development in the first third of the 20th century. 44

Chapter 4 APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF CHILDREN’S MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 54

Psychoanalytic concept of child development 54

Approach to mental development as learning in the school of behaviorism 66

Research on the mental development of children in Gestalt psychology 71

Research on cognitive development in line with genetic psychology 76

Approach to mental development in humanistic psychology 81

Chapter 5 DEVELOPMENT OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIA 88

The formation of domestic child psychology 88

Formation and development of Soviet child psychology 91

Development of domestic child psychology in the 50–60s 104

BASIC CONCEPTS 107

INTRODUCTION

The history of child psychology studies the patterns of formation and development of views on the child’s psyche based on the analysis of various approaches to understanding the genesis of the psyche. Child psychology is connected by extremely diverse ties with the most diverse areas of science and culture. From its very inception, it was focused on general psychology, pedagogy and ethics; it was and is no less influenced by the development of natural science and medicine. In the theories of such famous child psychologists as V. Stern, K. Bühler, L.S. Vygotsky, J. Piaget there is a clear connection with ethnography, sociology, cultural theory, art history, logic, and linguistics. Therefore, the history of child psychology also analyzes the development of connections between child psychology and other sciences and their influence on each other.

Education, theories of development, history - sciences practically or theoretically related to the development of man - one way or another ultimately come to the child and, consequently, to child psychology, which, in turn, enriches these sciences. The development of child psychology reflects the history of understanding man and life. From this point of view, the development of views on the child’s psyche and the development of child psychology as an independent field of psychological science are considered.

The significance of the proposed course on the history of child psychology is that the content of this subject is essentially the basis of culture necessary for the humanization of the educational process. The knowledge gained will help the teacher see in the student a unique personality, and not just an object for learning the material. This knowledge will also help to comprehend the fact that progress, understood as the emergence of new, qualitatively better knowledge, is possible in technology, but not in the humanities. Indeed, at present we know much more about the structure of the atom and the human nervous system than, for example, in ancient times, but the fruits of the spiritual activity of psychologists and philosophers of Ancient Greece or Rome were no less significant or interesting than the works of our contemporaries.

Of great importance is the fact that in this course the reader is presented with a panorama of different views on the nature of the psyche, on the laws governing our behavior and our cognition. Thus, exploring the problem of abilities, Aristotle came to the conclusion that they are innate and learning only helps their development. He wrote that not a single quality given to us by nature can change under the influence of training, just as a stone, which by nature has the ability to move downward, will not move up, even if someone wants to teach it to do so. In general, everything that we have from nature, Aristotle believed, we initially receive only in the form of possibilities and subsequently transform them into reality. At the same time, Helvetius argued that abilities are not related to heredity and develop only in the process of life; their formation depends on the method of learning and the presentation of material.

Such famous psychologists as Piaget and Freud also held opposing views on the driving forces of mental development. If Piaget believed that cognitive processes are leading, then Freud argued that the cognitive sphere is secondary in comparison with the motivational sphere, which determines a person’s life path, including the learning difficulties that the child experiences.

Analysis of various points of view on the psyche, among which there are actually no obviously incorrect or absolutely true ones, helps to develop a non-idealized, non-dogmatic view of the theories of various, even major, scientists, teaches one to think objectively and unbiasedly, to find real advantages and disadvantages in both established theories and in new, fashionable approaches today. Such a non-dogmatic, objective view is especially necessary for the teacher, since the stereotypical style of communication and status place in the class often provoke him to a certain authoritarianism and form an attitude towards his own infallibility.

Knowledge of the history of the formation of psychological science helps to understand its connection with the social situation, reveals the influence of the social conditions in which the scientist lives and works on his scientific views. In particular, it becomes clear the importance that the problem of biological and social factors acquired in the mental development of children in France in the 18th century. The ideas of enlightenment reflected the position not only of scientists, but also of new social forces, expressing the belief that not only birth, but also training, upbringing, i.e., the social conditions into which children of different classes find themselves, turn some children into illiterate, downtrodden peasants, others into outstanding scientists, and still others into proud aristocrats.

Understanding the complex path of development of scientific ideas, their connection with social aspirations and value orientations also explains the reasons for the rejection or acceptance of certain psychological theories. Thus, the enormous popularity of I.M.’s book becomes clear. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain” in the 60s of the last century in Russia and the widespread recognition of Freud’s theory after the First World War.

Understanding the fact that psychology does not provide the only correct and final solution to all problems, as well as knowledge of its connection with the social situation, will help readers more objectively understand the many scientific schools and movements that exist in modern psychological science. I hope that the reader will take the best from different directions, but for each person the views of a certain school or group of scientists are the closest. Some will be impressed by the views of Locke and the behaviorists, who argued that a child can, with proper upbringing, be molded into the type of personality that is desirable for an adult. Some will find closer to the positions of Descartes and Freud, who argued that the personality structure is laid down from birth and upbringing cannot influence either the abilities or the motives of behavior that are formed in children.

The positions of psychotherapists are no less varied, and some may find psychoanalysis attractive, which is based on the need for constant control, observation of a person’s life, on the assumption that without the help of a psychoanalyst, cannot understand his own problems, and someone will share the position of representatives of inductive psychology, who are convinced that a person must solve his problems himself. However, it is impossible to develop your own position or get rid of a certain dogmatism without knowledge of the logic of the development of the subject itself, without analyzing the development and formation of psychological views, i.e. without what is the content of a course on the history of child psychology.

Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM OF EDUCATION OF A CHILD IN PSYCHOLOGICAL TEACHINGS OF ANCIENTITY, THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE

Developmental psychology of Ancient Greece

Research on the mental development of children began since the times of ancient psychology. The first works related to the search for the foundations of the psyche, the foundations of the soul (the fundamental principles of the soul - arche), led psychologists to the idea of the development of the soul and the need to study both the factors that determine (determine) this development and its stages

One of the first scientists to study the problem of the development (genesis) of the psyche was the famous philosopher Heraclitus. He developed the idea of a world year (by analogy with the seasons), which he transferred to the development of the soul. He believed that the human soul is born, grows and improves, then gradually ages and finally dies. Drawing a comparison between the soul and fire, which, in his opinion, is the fundamental principle of the world, Heraclitus measured the degree of perfection and maturity of the soul by the degree of its fiery tf TaK, the soul of a child is still damp, wet, gradually it dries out, becomes more and more fiery, mature, capable of clear and precise thinking. In old age, the soul again gradually becomes saturated with moisture, becomes damp, and the person begins to think poorly and slowly) Thus, Heraclitus not only spoke for the first time about the development of the soul, but also connected this development with thinking, identifying mental development with the development of the intellect. This approach is characteristic of many theories of mental development, in which it is assumed that the formation of the personality, emotional and volitional sphere of children is only a consequence of the development of intelligence

For the first time, the question of the development of the personality of children and the formation of moral, socially approved behavior in them was raised by a Greek scientist Protagoras, one of the founders of the school of sophists. It is he who owns the famous saying: “Man is the measure of all things.” This saying assumes the relativity and subjectivity of human knowledge, the impossibility of developing a concept common to all, including the concept of good and evil, since what is good from the point of view of one person can be evil by the standards of another. At the same time, Protagoras said that, from the point of view of society, there is a concept of good and evil, a concept of good and bad behavior. It was he who first raised the question of whether it is possible to make a person better in a moral sense through systematic influence on him in personal communication, to help him overcome the difficulties of life. He considered the purpose of such influence not only to improve a person from the point of view of objective criteria of morality, but also to help in his adaptation to the social conditions in which he lives. From Protagoras' point of view, the natural development of a child's soul, without purposeful social influence on him, cannot help him in such socialization. Thus, already in Ancient Greece, the question was first raised about what conditions are optimal for the formation of a socially active and adapted personality of a child. Protagoras came to the conclusion that, from the point of view of social adaptation, the most important thing is external influence, which consists in teaching children how to influence others. In the conditions of Greek democracy, one of the ways of such influence was oratory, the ability to captivate people with words and convince them that one was right. Therefore, it was training in the techniques of oratory that Protagoras considered to be the most important thing in raising children. This point of view was shared by many scientists of Ancient Greece and Rome, and therefore the abilities associated with oratory were considered one of the most important criteria for giftedness. The ability to eloquently made it possible to more actively participate in public life and helped to achieve a higher status. Therefore, Protagoras believed that through training and exercise a person can improve morally and become a more worthy citizen.

Such outstanding scientists of Ancient Greece as Democritus, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle also paid special attention to the formation of the psyche of children.

Greek philosopher and psychologist, one of the founders of the atomic theory of the world Democritus was born in northern Greece in the city of Abdera into a noble and wealthy family. His parents tried to give him the best education, but Democritus himself considered it necessary to undertake several long journeys to deepen his knowledge not only in Greece, but also in other countries, primarily in Egypt, Persia and India. He spent almost all the money left to him by his parents on these travels, and therefore, when he returned to his homeland, his fellow citizens considered him guilty of wasting his fortune and scheduled a court hearing in which Democritus had to prove the legality of his behavior or leave his home forever. In his justification, proving the benefit of the knowledge he had acquired, he read to the people’s assembly the main provisions of his book “The Great World Building,” which, according to his contemporaries, was his best work. The strength of his conviction was so great that his fellow citizens realized that he was right and considered that the money was well spent by him. Not only was he acquitted, but he was also given a reward of 500 talents (a very large sum of money at that time), and copper statues were erected in his honor. Stories about him testify to his deep worldly wisdom, observation and extensive knowledge; it was not without reason that his fellow citizens turned to him for advice in difficult situations.

His erudition is also evident in his writings, which, unfortunately, have reached us only in fragments. The basis of his theory is the atomic concept, the foundations of which were developed by Democritus’ teacher Leucippus. According to this view, the whole world consists of tiny particles invisible to the eye - atoms. Man, like all surrounding nature, consists of atoms that form his body and soul. The soul is also material and consists of small round atoms, the most mobile, since they must impart activity to the inert body. Thus, from the point of view of Democritus, the soul is a source of activity, energy for the body. After the death of a person, the soul dissipates into the air, and therefore not only the body, but also the soul is mortal.

Democritus believed that the soul is located in several parts of the body - in the head (the rational part), the chest (the masculine part), the liver (the lustful part) and in the sense organs) Moreover, in the sense organs the atoms of the soul are very close to the surface and can touch with microscopic, invisible to the eye copies of surrounding objects (eidols), which float in the air, reaching the senses. These copies are separated (outflow) from all objects of the external world, and therefore this theory of knowledge is called the “theory of outflows.” When the eidol comes into contact with the atoms of the soul, a sensation occurs and this is how a person learns the properties of surrounding objects. Moreover, all our sensations (including visual and auditory) are associated with contacts, since sensation cannot occur without direct contact of the eidolas with the atoms of the soul. By summarizing the data of several senses, a person discovers the world, moving to the next level - conceptual, which is the result of the activity of thinking. Thus, according to Democritus, there are two stages in the cognitive process - sensations and thinking, which arise simultaneously and develop in parallel. At the same time, he emphasized that thinking gives us more knowledge than sensations. Thus, sensations do not allow us to see atoms, but through reflection we come to the conclusion about their existence.

The inability to fully understand the surrounding reality, according to Democritus, also applies to the laws that govern the world and human destiny. Democritus argued that there are no accidents in the world and everything happens for a “predetermined reason.” He wrote that people came up with the idea of chance to cover up their ignorance and inability to manage. But in reality there are no accidents, everything is causal. This approach is called universal determinism] and the recognition of the necessity of all events occurring in the world gives rise to a fatalistic tendency in understanding human life and denies human free will. Critics of Democritus, analyzing these views, emphasized that with such an understanding it is impossible not only to control one’s own behavior, but also to evaluate the actions of people, since they depend not on their moral principles, but on fate. Especially, these views of Democritus were assessed negatively from the point of view of the development of morality and the formation of children’s behavior, since if everything is predetermined, it is impossible to influence the child’s behavior, it is impossible to direct his mental development in a direction not provided for in his destiny, although Democritus himself sought to combine a fatalistic approach to fate with human activity in choosing moral criteria of behavior.

Almost all leading scientists of this period spoke about moral development as the basis of the entire mental development of children, paying significant attention to proper upbringing, which, from their point of view, was of greater importance than natural qualities. The Democrat shared the same point of view.

He wrote that moral principles are not given to a person from birth, but are the result of education, so people become good through exercise, not nature. Education, according to Democritus, should give a person three gifts: “to think well, speak well and do well.” He also “wrote that children who grew up in ignorance are like dancing between swords with their blades up. They die if, when jumping, they do not hit the only place where their feet should be placed. Likewise, ignorant people, avoiding following the right example, usually perish. Democritus himself assessed education as a very difficult matter; therefore, he consciously refused marriage and did not want to have children, since he believed that they cause a lot of troubles, and in case of success, the latter is acquired at the cost of great work and care, but in case of failure, the grief is not comparable to any other.

Although Democritus attached great importance to moral formation, he emphasized the leading role of ethical development in the general mental development of man Socrates. The main goal of education, according to Socrates, is the personal self-improvement of a person, in the education of which he distinguished two stages - the study of ethics and the study of special practical life issues. This approach to education followed from the main provisions of the psychological concept of Socrates.

Socrates was born in the capital of Greece, Athens. Having received the usual primary education for that time, he became a warrior, participated in several battles and showed himself to be a brave and hardy soldier. Upon returning to his homeland, he took an active part in the cultural and political life of Athens, where at that time the most widespread philosophical school was the school of the Sophists, with whose representatives Socrates polemicized.

Socrates also considered it his duty to take an active part in the public life of Athens, although he did not always agree with the opinion of the majority in the national assembly and in the jury trial, which required considerable courage, especially during the reign of the “thirty tyrants.” Socrates considered his differences with the majority to be the result of the fact that he always strived to observe laws and justice, which most people often do not care about. In 399 BC. he was accused of “not honoring the gods and corrupting youth,” and was sentenced to death by 361 votes out of 500. He courageously accepted the sentence by drinking poison, although many of his students sought to save the teacher by arranging his escape from Athens. Socrates' behavior at the trial, as well as his death, contributed to the widespread dissemination of his views, as they proved that Socrates' life is inseparable from his theoretical ethical views.

Socrates did not write down his reasoning, believing that only oral communication in a live conversation leads to the desired result - the education of the individual. We know about his views from three main sources - the comedies of Aristophanes, the memoirs of Xenophon and the works of Plato. All authors emphasize that it was Socrates who first approached the soul primarily as a source of human morality, and not as a source of body activity, as was accepted before him in the theories of Heraclitus and Democritus. Socrates said that the soul is the mental quality of an individual, characteristic of him as a rational being acting in accordance with moral ideals.

Socrates connected morality with human behavior, saying that it is a good realized in the actions of people. However, in order to evaluate a particular act as moral, one must first know what good is. Therefore, Socrates was forced to connect morality with reason, emphasizing that virtue consists in knowing the good and acting in accordance with this knowledge. For example, a person who knows how to behave in danger and acts according to his knowledge is brave. Therefore, first of all, we need to teach children good, show them the difference between good and bad, and then evaluate their behavior.

Knowing the difference between good and evil, a person begins to know himself. This is why early education of children is so important, especially knowledge such as good and evil. Having analyzed the development of the psyche of children, the formation of their knowledge about the world around them and about themselves, Socrates came to the conclusion that this process is based on the development of what is inherent in the child’s soul. That is, he proved that mental development is self-development, self-development of innate abilities.

One of the most important provisions of Socrates was the idea that there is absolute knowledge, absolute truth, which a person can know in his reflection about the nature of things and convey to others. Proving that such absolute knowledge not only exists, but can also be transmitted from one person to another, [Socrates was one of the first in psychology to turn to speech, arguing that truth is fixed in general concepts, in words, and in this form is transmitted from generation to generation. Thus, for the first time he connected the thought process with the word. This position was later developed by his student Plato, who identified thinking and inner speech.

However, absolute knowledge cannot be imparted into the child’s soul in ready-made form. It is impossible not only to transfer ready-made knowledge, but also to transfer attitudes towards it, ethical norms and concepts of morality and virtue. These feelings can only be developed from those germs that exist in the child’s soul. Moreover, the child himself must develop them, and the adult only helps him in this process. In fact, we are talking about the fact that unconscious knowledge, which until a certain time lay dormant in the child’s soul, must be made conscious, and therefore actively and consciously controlling behavior.

Updating of innate knowledge is possible under the influence of an internal need for this knowledge or an external motivation. Such an external motivation can be the perception of some thing, or maybe learning. Therefore, Socrates was one of the first psychologists to raise the question of the need to develop a method by which one can help actualize the knowledge inherent in the soul of a child. He believed that this method is based on a dialogue between teacher and student, in which the teacher directs the flow of the child’s thoughts, helping him to realize the knowledge necessary to solve a specific problem. This was the famous method of Socratic conversation. It was based on the method of “suggestive reflections” developed by Socrates, with the help of which children were led to certain knowledge.

Socrates never presented knowledge to his interlocutor in its final form, believing, as mentioned above, that ready-made knowledge cannot be made accessible to the consciousness of another person and that the most important thing is to lead him to the independent discovery of the truth.1 Socrates’ guiding questions should help him in this process gradually and led his listeners to the necessary conclusions. Introducing the concept of hypothesis, he showed in a conversation that an incorrect assumption leads to contradictions and, therefore, to the need to put forward another hypothesis leading to the truth. The main discovery to which Socrates led his interlocutors was that the universal, the absolute is in the mind and should only be deduced from it. In fact, this was the first attempt to develop a problem-based learning technology, since the student was presented with a certain problem in the form of a question-statement, and then helped to prove this statement (or refute it), leading to the correct answer with a system of questions that helped build an algorithm for solving this problem.

Thus, already the first studies of mental development led the thinkers of Ancient Greece to the idea of the need to apply the acquired knowledge about the laws of mental life to the process of teaching and raising children. It should be noted that the basis of the Greek and later Roman education systems was the concept of “kalokagathia” (a set of virtues), i.e. harmonious development of body and soul. Kalokagathia was also understood as “beauty,” which meant the beauty of the body, the beauty of speech, and a certain independence in the manifestation of thought. Thus, Socrates emphasized that he does not give ready-made knowledge to his students, but helps them themselves come to the right idea; he is, as he said, “the midwife of thought.”

Forming in students the foundations of moral behavior that meets the basic laws of kalokagathia, special attention was paid to voluntariness, to the ability of children to act independently, and not obediently follow the will of adults. Therefore [great importance was attached to the development of children's ability to introspection, they were taught from an early age to realize and distinguish between your states and desires.

... №10. Psychological tragedy of Euripides. ... era Renaissance, Roman literature is usually divided into periods according to the stages development... state. Legally children freedmen were equated with... Ticket No. 22 Marcus Tullius...

Slide 1

Topic: “Historical formation of developmental psychology” Plan 1. Formation of developmental (children’s) psychology as an independent field of psychological science. 2. The beginning of a systematic study of child development. 3. Formation and development of Russian developmental psychology in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. 4. Raising questions, defining the scope of tasks, clarifying the subject of child psychology in the first third of the twentieth century. 5. Mental development of the child and the biological factor of maturation of the body. 6. Mental development of a child: biological and social factors. 7. Mental development of a child: influence of the environment.

Slide 2

The formation of developmental (children's) psychology as an independent field of psychological science In the psychological teachings of past eras (in antiquity, in the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance), many of the most important questions of the mental development of children have already been raised. In the works of the ancient Greek scientists Heraclitus, Democritus, Scrates, Plato, Aristotle, the conditions and factors for the formation of the behavior and personality of children, the development of their thinking, creativity and abilities were considered, and the idea of harmonious mental development of a person was formulated. During the Middle Ages, from the 3rd to the 14th centuries, more attention was paid to the formation of a socially adapted personality, the education of the required personality qualities, the study of cognitive processes and methods of influencing the psyche. During the Renaissance (E. Rotterdamsky, R. Bacon, J. Comenius), the issues of organizing education and teaching based on humanistic principles, taking into account the individual characteristics of children and their interests, came to the fore.

Slide 3

In the study of modern philosophers and psychologists R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, J. Lacca, D. Hartley, J. J. Rousseau, the problem of interaction between hereditary and environmental factors and their influence on mental development was discussed.

Slide 4

In the second half of the 19th century. Objective prerequisites have emerged for the identification of child psychology as an independent branch of psychological science. Introduction of the idea of development: The evolutionary biological theory of Charles Darwin introduced new postulates into the field of psychology - about adaptation as the main determinant of mental development, about the genesis of the psyche, about the passage of certain, natural stages in its development. Physiologist and psychologist I.M. Sechenov developed the idea of the transition of external actions to the internal plane, where they, in a transformed form, become mental qualities and abilities of a person - the idea of interiorization of mental processes. Sechenov wrote that for general psychology, an important, even the only, method of objective research is the method of genetic observation. The emergence of new objective and experimental research methods in psychology. The method of introspection (self-observation) was not applicable for studying the psyche of young children.

Slide 5

The German scientist Darwinist W. Preyer outlined the sequence of stages in the development of certain aspects of the psyche and concluded about the importance of the hereditary factor. They were offered an approximate example of keeping an observation diary, research plans were outlined, and new problems were identified. The experimental method developed by W. Wundt to study sensations and simple feelings turned out to be extremely important for child psychology. Soon other, much more complex areas of the psyche, such as thinking, will, and speech, became available for experimental research.

Slide 6

The beginning of a systematic study of child development The first concepts of the mental development of children arose under the influence of Charles Darwin’s law of evolution and the so-called biogenetic law. Biogenetic law formulated in the 19th century. biologists E. Haeckel and F. Müller, based on the principle of recapitulation (repetition). It states that the historical development of a species is reflected in the individual development of an organism belonging to a given species. The individual development of an organism (ontogenesis) is a brief and rapid repetition of the development history of a number of ancestors of a given species (phylogeny). American scientist S. Hall (1844-1924) created the first comprehensive theory of mental development in childhood.

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According to Hall, the sequence of stages of mental development is genetically determined (preformed); the biological factor, the maturation of instincts, is the main one in determining the change in forms of behavior. S. Hall came up with the idea of creating pedology - a special science about children, concentrating all knowledge about child development from other scientific fields. The significance of Hall's work is that it was a search for law, the logic of development; An attempt was made to show that there is a certain relationship between the historical, social and individual development of man, the establishment of the exact parameters of which still remains a task for scientists.

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The formation and development of Russian developmental psychology in the second half of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century. The initial stages of the formation of developmental and educational psychology in Russia also date back to the second half of the 19th century. N.I. Pirogov was the first to draw attention to the fact that education has not an applied, but a philosophical meaning - the education of the human spirit, the Man in man. He insisted on the need to recognize, understand and study the uniqueness of child psychology. Childhood has its own laws, and they must be respected. A powerful impetus was given to the study of the age characteristics of children, to the identification of conditions and factors determining child development. During this period, the fundamental provisions of developmental and educational psychology as independent scientific disciplines were formulated, and problems were identified that should be investigated in order to put the pedagogical process on a scientific basis.

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In the 70-80s. XIX century There are two types of research: observations of parents of their children and observations of scientists of child development. Along with the study of the general patterns of child development, there was an accumulation of material that helps to understand the trajectories of the development of individual aspects of mental life: memory, attention, thinking, imagination. A special place was given to observations of the development of children's speech, which influences the formation of various aspects of the psyche. Important data were obtained from studying the physical development of children (I. Starkov). Attempts were made to determine the psychological characteristics of boys and girls (K.V. Elnitsky). The genetic approach has received significant development in science.

Slide 10

General provisions were formulated about the main features of child development: Development occurs gradually and consistently. In general, it represents a continuous forward movement, but is not rectilinear, allowing deviations from a straight line and stopping. There is an inextricable connection between spiritual and physical development. The same inextricable connection exists between mental, emotional and volitional activity, between mental and moral development. The correct organization of education and training provides for harmonious, comprehensive development. Individual bodily organs and various aspects of mental activity do not all participate in the development process at once; the speed of their development and energy are not the same. Development can proceed at an average pace, it can accelerate and slow down depending on a number of reasons. Development may stop and take painful forms. It is impossible to make early predictions about the future development of the child. Special talent must be supported by broad general development. It is impossible to artificially force children's development; we must allow each age period to “outlive” itself.

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A significant contribution was made to the development of research methods as the most important condition for the transition of developmental and educational psychology into the category of independent scientific disciplines. The observation method, in particular the “diary” method, was developed; programs and plans for monitoring the child’s behavior and psyche were proposed. The experimental method was introduced into the practice of empirical research; A natural experiment was intended specifically for child psychology (A.F. Lazursky). The possibilities of the test method were discussed thoroughly. Other methods have also been developed. A significant addition to information about the psychological characteristics of children was provided by the results of the analysis of works of art. The main directions of research at that time were ways to form a comprehensively developed personality and improve the scientific foundations of the education system.

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Posing questions, defining the range of tasks, clarifying the subject of child psychology in the first third of the twentieth century. The English scientist J. Selley considered the formation of the human psyche from the standpoint of an associative approach. He identified mind, feelings and will as the main components of the psyche. The significance of his work for the practice of child upbringing consisted in determining the content of the child’s first associations and the sequence of their occurrence. M. Montessori proceeded from the idea that there are internal impulses of child development that need to be known and taken into account when teaching children. It is necessary to provide the child with the opportunity to independently acquire the knowledge to which he is predisposed at a given time - a period of sensitivity.

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The German psychologist and teacher E. Meimann also focused on the problems of cognitive development of children and the development of methodological foundations of teaching. In the periodization of mental development proposed by Meiman (up to the age of 16), three stages are distinguished: the stage of fantastic synthesis; analysis; stage of rational synthesis. Swiss psychologist E. Claparède criticized Hall's recapitulation ideas, noting that phylogenesis and ontogenesis of the psyche have a common logic and this leads to a certain similarity in the series of development, but does not mean their identity. Claparède believed that the stages of development of the child's psyche are not predetermined instinctively; he developed the idea of self-development of inclinations using the mechanisms of imitation and play. External factors (for example, learning) influence development, determining its direction and accelerating its pace.

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French psychologist A. Binet became the founder of the testological and normative direction in child psychology. Binet experimentally studied the stages of development of thinking in children, setting them tasks to define concepts (what is a “chair”, what is a “horse”, etc.). Having summarized the answers of children of different ages (from 3 to 7 years), he discovered three stages in the development of children's concepts - the stage of enumeration, the stage of description and the stage of interpretation. Each stage was correlated with a certain age, and Binet concluded that there were certain standards for intellectual development. German psychologist W. Stern proposed introducing intelligence quotient (IQ). Binet proceeded from the assumption that the level of intelligence remains constant throughout life and is aimed at solving different problems. A coefficient of 70 to 130% was considered the intellectual norm; mentally retarded children had indicators below 70%, gifted children - above 130%.

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Mental development of a child and the biological factor of maturation of the body American psychologist A. Gesell (1880-1971) conducted a longitudinal study of the mental development of children from birth to adolescence using repeated sections. Gesell was interested in how children's behavior changes with age; he wanted to create an approximate timeline for the appearance of specific forms of mental activity, starting with the child's motor skills and his preferences. Gesell also used the method of comparative study of the development of twins, normal development and pathology (for example, in blind children). Periodization of age development (growth) Gesell proposes the division of childhood into periods of development according to the criterion of changes in the internal growth rate: from birth to 1 year - the highest “increase” in behavior, from 1 year to 3 years - average and from 3 to 18 years - low pace of development. The focus of Gesell's scientific interests was precisely early childhood - up to the age of three.

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The prominent Austrian psychologist K. Bühler (1879-1973), who worked for some time within the framework of the Würzburg school, created his own concept of the mental development of a child. Each child in his development naturally goes through stages that correspond to the stages of evolution of animal behavior forms: instinct, training, intelligence. He considered the biological factor (self-development of the psyche, self-development) as the main one. Instinct is the lowest stage of development; a hereditary fund of behavior patterns, ready for use and requiring only certain incentives. Human instincts are vague, weakened, with large individual differences. The set of ready-made instincts in a child (newborn) is narrow - screaming, sucking, swallowing, protective reflex. Training (the formation of conditioned reflexes, skills that develop during life) makes it possible to adapt to various life circumstances and is based on rewards and punishments, or on successes and failures. Intelligence is the highest stage of development; adapting to a situation by inventing, discovering, thinking about and realizing a problem situation. Bühler strongly emphasizes the “chimpanzee-like” behavior of children in the first years of life.

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Mental development of a child: biological and social factors American psychologist and sociologist J. Baldwin was one of the few at that time who called for studying not only cognitive, but also emotional and personal development. Baldwin substantiated the concept of cognitive development of children. He argued that cognitive development includes several stages, beginning with the development of innate motor reflexes. Then comes the stage of speech development, and this process is completed by the stage of logical thinking. Baldwin identified special mechanisms for the development of thinking - assimilation and accommodation (changes in the body). The German psychologist W. Stern (1871 - 1938) believed that personality is a self-determining, consciously and purposefully acting integrity that has a certain depth (conscious and unconscious layers). He proceeded from the fact that mental development is self-development, the self-development of a person’s existing inclinations, directed and determined by the environment in which the child lives.

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The potential capabilities of a child at birth are quite uncertain; he himself is not yet aware of himself and his inclinations. The environment helps the child become aware of himself, organizes his inner world, and gives it a clear, formalized and conscious structure. The conflict between external influences (environmental pressure) and the child’s internal inclinations is, according to Stern, of fundamental importance for development, since it is negative emotions that serve as a stimulus for the development of self-awareness. Thus, Stern argued that emotions are associated with the assessment of the environment, they help the process of socialization and the development of reflection in children. Stern argued that there is not only a normativity common to all children of a certain age, but also an individual normativity that characterizes a particular child. Among the most important individual properties, he named individual rates of mental development, which are manifested in the speed of learning.

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Mental development of a child: the influence of the environment Sociologist and ethnopsychologist M. Mead sought to show the leading role of sociocultural factors in the mental development of children. Comparing the features of puberty, the formation of the structure of self-awareness, self-esteem among representatives of different nationalities, she emphasized the dependence of these processes primarily on cultural traditions, the characteristics of raising and teaching children, and the dominant style of communication in the family. The concept of enculturation, introduced by her, as a learning process in the conditions of a specific culture, enriches the general concept of socialization. Mead identified three types of cultures in the history of mankind - postfigurative (children learn from their predecessors), cofigurative (children and adults learn mainly from their peers, contemporaries) and prefigurative (adults can learn from their children). Her views had a great influence on the concepts of personality psychology and developmental psychology; it clearly showed the role of the social environment and culture in the formation of the child’s psyche. Thus, we have traced the formulation of the problem of the determination of mental development in the theoretical positions and empirical studies of a number of major psychologists.

Research on the mental development of children began from the times of ancient psychology. The first works related to the search for the foundations of the psyche, the foundations of the soul, led psychologists to the idea of the development of the soul and the need to study both the factors that determine (determine) this development and its stages.

One of the first scientists to study the problem of the development (genesis) of the psyche was the famous philosopher Heraclitus (c. 520 - 460 BC). He developed the idea of a world year (by analogy with the seasons), which he transferred and for the development of the soul. He believed that the human soul is born, grows and improves, then gradually ages and finally dies. Heraclitus compared the soul with fire, which, in his opinion, is the fundamental principle of the world; he measured the degree of perfection and maturity of the soul by the degree of its fieryness.

Heraclitne was only the first to speak about the development of the soul, but also connected it with the development of thinking, identifying mental development with the development of the intellect. This approach is characteristic of many modern theories of mental development, which assume that the formation of the personality, emotional and volitional sphere of children is only a consequence of the development of intelligence.

For the first time, the question of the development of the personality of children and the formation of moral, socially approved behavior in them was raised by the Greek scientist Protagoras (491 - 411 BC) - one of the founders of the school of sophists. He owns the saying: “man is the measure of all things.”

Protagoras raised the question of whether it is possible to make a person better in a moral sense through systematic influence on him in personal communication, to help him overcome the difficulties of life. The purpose of such influence is to adapt the child to social conditions.

Protagoras came to the conclusion that from the point of view of social adaptation, the most important is external influence, which consists in teaching children how to influence others, in developing abilities related to oratory. The main criterion for giftedness was considered to be the ability to speak eloquently, which made it possible to more actively participate in public life and help achieve a higher social status.

From the point of view of the Greek philosopher and psychologist Democrat (460 - 370 BC), the soul is a source of activity, energy for the body.

The democrat believed that the soul is located in several parts of the body - in the head (the rational part of the soul), the chest (the masculine part), the liver (the lustful part) and the senses.

The democrat first put forward the idea of a theory of knowledge. He believed that there are two stages in the cognitive process - sensation and thinking, which arise simultaneously and develop in parallel.

The democrat put forward the idea of universal determinism. Recognition of the necessity of all occurring events gives rise to a fatalistic tendency in the understanding of human life and denies human free will.

The democrat believed that it was impossible to influence the behavior of a child, it was impossible to direct his mental development in a direction not intended by his fate. According to the Democrat, education should give a person three gifts: to think well, speak well, and do well. The democrat attached great importance to the moral formation of the child.

Socrates (470 - 300 BC) attached great importance to the ethical development of the child. The main goal of education, according to Socrates, is personal self-improvement, in the formation of which he distinguished two stages - the study of ethics and the study of special practical life issues. This approach to education followed from the main provisions of the psychological concept of Socrates.

One of the most important provisions of Socrates was the idea that there is absolute knowledge, absolute truth, which a person can know in his reflection about the nature of things and convey to others. Socrates was one of the first in psychology to turn to speech, arguing that truth is fixed in general concepts, words, and in this form is passed on from generation to generation. Thus, for the first time he connected the thought process with the word. This position was later developed by his student Plato, who identified thinking and inner speech.

Socrates was one of the first psychologists to raise the question of the need to develop a method by which one can help actualize the knowledge inherent in the soul of a child. He believed that this method is based on a dialogue between teacher and student, in which the teacher directs the flow of the child’s thoughts, helping him to realize the knowledge necessary to solve a specific problem. This was the famous method of Socratic conversation. It was based on the method of “suggestive reflections” developed by Socrates, with the help of which children were led to certain knowledge. Socrates never presented knowledge to his interlocutor in a ready-made form. Socrates gradually led his listeners to the necessary conclusions.

Introducing the concept of hypothesis, he showed in a conversation that an incorrect assumption leads to contradictions and, therefore, to the need to put forward another hypothesis leading to the truth. In fact, this was the first attempt to develop problem-based learning technology.

Plato (427 - 347 BC), studying mental development, came to the conclusion that there is an ideal world in which souls, or ideas of things, are located, i.e. those perfect objects that become prototypes of real objects. The perfection of samples is unattainable for these objects, but makes them strive for similarity, to correspond to them. Thus, the human soul is not only an idea, but also the goal of a real thing. From Plato's point of view, the soul is constant, unchanging and immortal, it is the guardian of human morality.

He likened the soul to a chariot drawn by two horses. The black horse (lusting soul) does not listen to orders, strives to overturn the chariot, throw it into the abyss - it needs a constant rein. The white horse (passionate soul) does not always obey the driver, needs constant supervision, and strives to go its own way. And the rational part of the soul is identified with the driver: it looks for the right path and directs the chariot along it. Controlling the movement of horses.

Plato first presented the soul not as an integral organization, but as a certain structure, experiencing the pressure of opposing tendencies, conflicting motives dictated by the lustful and passionate parts of the soul, which cannot always be reconciled with the help of reason. This idea of Plato about the internal conflict of the soul subsequently became especially relevant in psychoanalysis.

Exploring cognitive processes, Plato spoke about sensation, memory and thinking. He was the first to consider memory an independent mental process. He gave memory the definition _ “ring imprint on wax” _ considering it one of the main stages in the process of learning about the world around us. Plato also proved that thinking is a dialogue of the soul with itself (inner speech).

Plato's system of education is based on the principle of transferring knowledge through the formation of concepts. Plato understood the process of forming any new knowledge as remembering what the soul knew in its cosmic life, but forgot when entering the body. Education teaches children not only to think correctly, but also to do the right things, since it is the mind and thinking that should guide human behavior.

Plato considered the individual inclinations and abilities of children from the point of view of their professional suitability and future social status. At the same time, already in childhood it is necessary to carry out professional selection and testing of children and raise the child according to his future purpose.

Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) believed that the body cannot be separated from the soul. Thanks to the soul, the body learns, thinks and acts. After the death of a person, the rational part of the soul does not die, but connects with the “supreme mind” (Nus), replenishing its content.

Aristotle paid special attention to the development of the intellect, emphasizing that not only thinking, but, above all, perception plays a significant role. Aristotle, studying human development, adhered to a systematic approach. He argued that in an individual person, during his transformation from an infant into a mature being, those steps that the entire organic world has gone through during its history are repeated. This generalization contained in its rudimentary form an idea that was later called the biogenetic law.

Aristotle investigated the genesis of the formation of concepts in children. He argued that first they form general concepts, and only then individual ones.

Aristotle was the first to speak about the nature-conformity of education and the need to correlate pedagogical methods with the level of mental development of children. He proposed a periodization, the basis of which was the structure of the soul he identified. He divided childhood into three periods - up to 7 years, from 7 to 14 years and from 14 to 21 years. For each period, a specific education system must be developed that corresponds to the basic laws of that period.

Issues of mental development and the formation of a socially adapted personality received new development in the Middle Ages (from the 3rd to the 14th centuries).

During this period, religion had a serious influence on the development of science. Since issues of the soul, spiritual life and self-improvement became the subject of religion, the subject of psychology also changed, which from the science of the soul began to turn into a science of cognitive processes.

In child psychology, problems of the development of cognition, studies of basic cognitive processes such as the development of cognition in children, the dynamics of their formation and methods of their formation have come to the fore.

A new approach to understanding the soul and its genesis was one of the first to be formulated by the outstanding Greek philosopher Plotinus. He introduced the concept of unity and integrity of a person, which is important for modern developmental psychology, which is formed in the first years of life and is the basis of a person’s identity to himself.

No less important was Plotinus' position on self-observation as the basis for achieving unity. Plotinus understands mental action at any level as purely spiritual. All manifestations of life are interpreted as derivatives of the soul. Memory is nothing more than the soul’s knowledge of its previous actions, therefore memory is the basis of the unity of consciousness, connecting the past and the present in it.

The further development of the doctrine of self-consciousness and cognitive activity of the soul is associated with the name of the famous Roman scientist Augustine Aurelius (354 - 430). He entered the history of science under the name of Augustine the Blessed. He considered the soul to be an instrument that rules the body. The basis of the soul is formed by the will and not the mind, thereby St. Augustine became the founder of the doctrine, later called voluntarism (from the Latin “voluntas” - will).

Augustine the Blessed introduced the concept of the innate activity of the soul - the basis of its development. This activity, directing and transforming human cognition and behavior, is the basis of her will. Augustine the Blessed put forward the idea of self-development of the psyche. The main idea is that the genesis of the psyche does not depend on external influences and is directed by one’s own, innate activity aimed at development. Augustine sharply condemned violence against a child and argued that volitional activity is directed only by God, and this control is carried out with the help of the child’s self-awareness, i.e. the child realizes his capabilities and aspirations.

The works of the outstanding Arab thinker Ibn Sina (Latinized name Avicenna) were of great importance for child psychology.

He was one of the first researchers in the field of developmental psychophysiology, studying the connection between the physical development of the body and its psychological characteristics in different age periods. At the same time, important importance was attached to education. Education is an active force, capable of changing the physiological properties of the body in a certain direction. A special place was given to the feelings and affects that a child experiences at different age periods. By evoking certain affects in a child, adults shape his nature, his body, the entire system of his psychophysiological functions. Ibn Sina is credited with staging an experiment called “experimental neurosis.”

Questions related to the practice of influencing the mental development and formation of a child’s personality arose before scientists of the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries).

During the Renaissance, humanist scientists sought to restore the foundations of classical education and develop educators’ interest in the child’s personality. Great importance was given to the development of new teaching principles, the leading of which were visibility and conformity to nature.

Erasmus of Rotterdam put forward the idea of combining visibility with positive emotions. He believed that the basis for the diligence and curiosity of students is the encouragement from the teacher and the emotional satisfaction of children during learning.

The English philosopher and psychologist Roger Bacon argued that experience, experiment and mathematics should be the basis of all sciences. Bacon argued that sensations are the leading mental process, the material from which knowledge is born. He owns the famous thesis “Knowledge is power.”

The famous Spanish scientist Juan Vives proposed a new method of generalization - induction (derivation from the particular to the general). Vives is the author of the proof of the possibility and validity of the logical transition from the particular to the general. The basis of such a transition, according to Vives, is the laws of associations, and the association of impressions determines the nature of memory. Vives was one of the first to come to the conclusion that the most effective way to suppress a negative experience is not to restrain it or suppress it with the mind, but to repress it with another, stronger experience.

Another famous Spanish researcher, Juan Huarte, set a special task: studying individual differences in abilities for the purpose of professional selection. The main abilities were recognized as imagination (fantasy), memory and intelligence.

The science of that time was characterized by a mechanical approach, the value of which lies in the fact that, by analyzing the stages of child development, scientists came to the conclusion that there were corresponding periods in human mental development. Thus, already at that time the foundations of periodization were laid.

A seeker of new paths in science, the forerunner of the Renaissance was Roger Bacon (1214-1292). In disputes with the scholastics, he proclaimed the importance of experiments and observation in knowledge. However, experience, according to Bacon, makes it possible to know the body, but it is powerless to know the soul. To know the soul, you need something else, a special kind of inspiration, some kind of inner enlightenment that allows you to comprehend what sensory perception cannot reveal. Bacon gives a lot of material about the optic nerves and visual perception, which he explains from the general laws of propagation, refraction and reflection of light. The natural science direction, developed by Roger Bacon and some other scientists, was an important line in the development of materialistic ideas of medieval philosophy.

In the XIV century. A new era begins in Italy - the Renaissance, which later marked the great flowering of civilization throughout Europe. During the transition of medieval feudal society to a new phase of its development, which was characterized by the appearance of elements of relations that were new for that time - early capitalist ones, the influence of Antiquity again appeared. By the 14th century refers to the activities of the greatest humanists - A. Dante (1265 - 1321), F. Petrarch (1304 - 1374), D. Boccaccio (1313 - 1375). A great interest in man, his experiences and problems of existence distinguishes all their works. According to the cultural historian J. Burckhardt (1818 - 1897), in this era the “discovery of man” takes place. Coluccio Salutati (1331 - 1406) and Leonardo Bruni (1369 - 1444), followers of Petrarch, used the word humanitas (humanity) as a property of a person that determines his human dignity and attracts knowledge.

In their perfect creations, art is not yet freed from religious content: the worldly and the ecclesiastical merge into unity. It is essentially a poetic representation of ideas. Dante in the Divine Comedy, Boccaccio in his short stories, Petrarch in his sonnets and canzones attack alchemy, astrology, magic, mysticism and asceticism with crushing criticism. The most important invention of the 15th century - printing (1436, J. Gutenberg, Germany) - made it possible for humanism to fulfill its educational task. Humanists are engaged in the publication of classical ancient literature. Humanism has become the most important phenomenon in the spiritual life of Western European countries, including the Netherlands and Germany. An outstanding humanist was Erasmus, born in Rotterdam, and therefore known as Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469 - 1536). The author of the famous satire “In Praise of Stupidity” in his philosophical works outlined a system of rules for strengthening the spirit. Just the desire to free yourself from one or another vice is not enough. “...One should constantly and always remember that human life...is nothing more than a continuous struggle...with a great army of vices...” In the fight against them, the spirit must be armed. There are two types of weapons: prayer and knowledge, primarily of the Holy Scriptures and the wisdom of the ancients. The richer these tools are, the more armed a person is. “The beginning... of wisdom is in knowing oneself.” The weapons of a man - a Christian warrior, in Erasmus' terminology, are means aimed at mastering his own movements of the soul. These thoughts echo the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky about the mediated nature of human mental processes.

In the works of Renaissance figures, a humanistic concept of man emerges. Its foundations were laid by the great Dante. The embodiment of high ideas about man is the image of Ulysses (Odysseus) - a brave discoverer, a hero, a valiant, intelligent man. Through his lips, Dante proclaimed a new view of man.

"Oh brothers...
That short period of time while they are still awake
Earthly feelings - their remainder is meager
Give in to the comprehension of newness...
You were not created for an animal's share,
But they were born to valor and knowledge.”

Freedom and personal responsibility, nobility, the ability to achieve feats, to fulfill earthly destiny, which is activity, are the most important traits of a person. The concept of humanists contains a new understanding of the relationship between the divine and natural principles: they must be in unity. Man is a creative being. His dignity lies in the ability to rise above the animal state: the truly human in him comes from culture. The humanistic view of man breaks with asceticism and proclaims the human right to the fullness of physical and spiritual existence, the maximum development of the best human qualities.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519) revealed the inconsistency of man. Man is a magnificent instrument of nature, an earthly god, but he is also cruel and often insignificant in his thoughts and actions.

A new aspect in the understanding of man is revealed in the work of the outstanding Italian statesman and political philosopher Nicolo Machiavelli (1487 - 1527). According to Machiavelli, political action requires a person, first of all, to take into account objective circumstances, the will, energy and strength of the politician - valor (virtu). In order to achieve his goal, a politician should not take into account moral and religious assessments. Politics and morality are autonomous. Moral considerations are subordinated to political goals. Only state interest, that is, national interest, the interest of the fatherland, drives the actions of a statesman. The result of these considerations was the conclusion: the end justifies the means. In modern psychology there is the concept of “Machiavellianism”. It refers to a person’s tendency to manipulate other people. A methodology for identifying Machiavellianism as a personality characteristic has been developed.

A deep psychological analysis of man is contained in the work of the French philosopher M. Montaigne (1533 - 1592) “Experiences”. Much attention is paid to self-knowledge. Man, according to Montaigne, is not the center of the universe, but a part of it. “When I play with a cat, who knows if she is not playing with me rather than I am with her?” - he asks. Montaigne's skepticism, his thoughts about the virtues of the common man, criticism of the morals and hypocrisy of high society were continued in the science of modern times.

The most important feature of the Renaissance is the revival of the natural sciences, the development of science and the growth of knowledge. A natural philosophy emerges, free from direct subordination to religion (G. Bruno, B. Telesio, P. Pomponazzi). During this period, science was born not within the walls of universities, but in the workshops of artists, sculptures, engravers, architects, who were also engineers, mathematicians, and technicians. These workshops became real experimental laboratories. Here theoretical work and experience were combined. It was the activities of artists that laid the foundation for new problems in mechanics, optics, anatomy and other sciences. In the conditions of social requirements for artists of that time, they had to know all these branches of art, they must have knowledge of the construction of large structures. To achieve the task of realistic depiction, it was necessary to establish the rules of perspective and color in painting. A need arose for a scientific explanation, and not only for observation, experience and talent, but for bringing optics and mechanics, mathematics, and anatomy to the aid of art. This need to find rules for the artist develops into the work of discovering the laws of nature.

XVI century - a time of great discoveries in the fields of mechanics, astronomy, and mathematics. N. Copernicus (1473 - 1543), I. Kepler (1571 - 1630), G. Bruno (1548 - 1600), G. Galileo (1564 - 1642) stand at the origins of classical science of the New Age. Their significance lies in the fact that they proved: it is necessary to analyze actual phenomena, processes and discover laws, guided by the assumption that nature obeys the simplest rules. It is necessary to expel animistic ideas from the concepts of movement and force. The systematic work of theoretical scientific thinking begins. Great geographical discoveries of the XV - XVI centuries. (the discovery of America by H. Columbus, the first voyage around the world by F. Magellan, etc.) expanded ideas about the world and asserted the primacy of experimental knowledge over book knowledge.

A new scientific methodology is gradually emerging. Medieval methodology was predominantly deductive-syllogistic in nature: it was adapted only to finding internal relationships between ready-made provisions and arguments and could not serve to find new truths that did not follow from old authorities (the Holy Scriptures, the works of the church fathers, the works of Aristotle, etc.) . The brilliant remarks of Leonardo da Vinci, the futile attempts to create a new methodology of Peter Ramus (1515 - 1572), who tragically died on St. Bartholomew's Night, later Kepler and Galileo trumpeted the world about a new methodology. Together with F. Bacon, some aspects of the new scientific method were clarified. The period spanning the 16th and 17th centuries. (from the time of the publication of “On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres” by Copernicus - 1543, and until the publication of “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” by Newton - 1687), meant a decisive turning point in the thinking of Western civilization, which undermined the authority of medieval science. It went down in history as the “scientific revolution.” At the same time, the outstanding historian of natural science P. Duhem at the beginning of the 20th century. “discovered” the medieval predecessors of Galilean physics. This suggests that the birth of modern science occurred in the 13th century. The researcher is inclined to the idea of continuity of transition from the scholastic thinking of the Middle Ages to the science of the 17th century.

Of all the areas of natural science, in connection with their importance for psychology, the development in different countries of medicine, human anatomy and physiology should be especially noted. T. Paracelsus (1493 - 1541) came up with a new theory about the nature of the human body, the causes and methods of treating diseases. In anatomy, Andrei Vesalius (1514 - 1564) published a fundamental work “On the structure of the human body” (1543). The book replaced Galen's anatomy, which had many errors, because he judged the structure of the human body on the basis of data that he gleaned from the anatomy of monkeys and dogs. The number of newly discovered body parts was constantly growing. Vesalius's Italian contemporaries - G. Fallopius, B. Eustachius, I. Fabricius of Acquapendente and others - made a number of discoveries that were forever included in anatomy under their names.

The works of the physician and thinker Miguel Servetus (1509/1511 - 1553) and his ideas about the pulmonary circulation (1553) were important. A new era in anatomy, physiology and embryology began with the work of M. Malpighi (1628 - 1694) and research in experimental physiology. V. Harvey in 1628 solved the problem of blood circulation.

Thus, knowledge through experience gradually developed, which replaced dogma and scholasticism.

The German scholastics R. Gocklenius and O. Kassmann first introduced the term “” (1590). Before this, Philip Melanchthon (1497 - 1560), a German humanist, a friend of Luther, brought up under the influence of Erasmus, gave it a place of honor in his “Commentary on the Soul.” He was revered as an authority in the field of teaching psychology and dominated some German universities until the middle of the 18th century. The Spanish humanist, friend of Erasmus of Rotterdam, Juan Luis Vives (1492 - 1542), in his book “On the Soul and Life” (1538), argued: the main question is not what the soul is, but what are its manifestations and their connections. This indicates an increased interest in psychological issues and allows us to understand the successes of psychological analysis in the 17th century. in F. Bacon and R. Descartes.

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