Why Nicholas 1 was called the apogee of autocracy. Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. “Apogee” of autocracy. Caucasian War of the 19th century
"The apogee of autocracy." Reforms of Nicholas I
1) During the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855), the autocratic form of government reached its apogee. The emperor sought to rule in isolation from society, experiencing distrust in it caused by the Decembrist uprising. This led to the fact that the only support of his absolute power was the bureaucratic apparatus that tripled during the years of his rule, a modernized police force, a submissive church and a colossal army, which he used primarily to suppress liberation movements both within the country and abroad. The main goal of his reign was to fight the revolution, for which he tightened control over all spheres of public life by:
1. the creation of a new political police - the gendarmerie, which was subordinate to the III department of the Emperor's Own Chancellery. Its activities were aimed not only at identifying opponents of the regime, but also at preventing political crimes (for which surveillance, denunciations, and secret agents were used);
2. tightening censorship. Any criticism of the regime and its representatives was unacceptable. A huge number of government institutions received censorship rights;
3. reactionary policy in the field of education. Education again became class-based (universities and gymnasiums for nobles; district schools for merchants and townspeople; parish schools for peasants). Subjects requiring independent thinking were excluded from the programs. Control over the education sector by government agencies was tightened. Numerous types of repression were provided for against violators of a very strict educational discipline;
4. creating your own ideological doctrine that substantiated the inviolability of autocracy - the “theory of official nationality” developed by S.S. Uvarov. She promoted “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality” as supposedly the fundamental “beginnings of Russian life.” They, according to the authors of the theory, meant the absence of a basis for social protest against absolutism - the people in Russia love the Tsar as a father, and this love is based on the solid foundation of Orthodoxy. This theory was introduced into the consciousness of society through educational institutions, the official press, literature, and theater.
2) However, Nicholas understood that it was impossible to strengthen the empire with restrictions and repressions alone. Therefore, he also carried out a number of reforms that made it possible to temporarily stabilize the socio-economic situation in the empire:
1. Codification of legislation carried out by M.M. Speransky. It made it possible to somewhat limit the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy, inevitable under an autocratic-bureaucratic regime. In 1830, a collection of all Russian laws published from 1649 to 1825 was compiled - the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire (45 books), and in 1832, on its basis - a collection of current law - “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire” (8 books ).
2. Reform of the state village (1837-1841), carried out by P.D. Kiselev. It made it possible to somewhat improve the situation of state peasants. Peasant self-government was introduced. Hospitals and veterinary centers appeared in the state village. Recruitment and land use were streamlined. In case of hunger strikes, the so-called “public plowing” was provided, the harvest from which would go to the public fund.
3. Financial reform (1839-1843), implemented by E.F. Kankrin. By maintaining a strict proportion between paper credit notes and silver, it was possible to achieve a budget deficit and strengthen the country's financial system. However, in general, the successes of Nicholas's domestic policy turned out to be very limited and short-lived. The reason for this is the preservation of the autocratic-bureaucratic system and serfdom. They slowed down the development of the country and, as a result, led to the sad end of Nicholas’s reign - the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856).
The years of the reign of Nicholas I are regarded as the “apogee of autocracy.” The government actively fought the revolutionary movement in Russia and Western Europe, mass popular unrest, and cracked down on advanced and progressive ideas and people. The main goal of the emperor's internal policy was to strengthen and protect the existing system. Realizing the need for broad reforms and fearing a new revolutionary surge, the emperor carried out a number of reforms that did not affect the foundations of the state structure. Hence the inconsistency and duality of the policies of Nicholas I: on the one hand, a broad political reaction, on the other, an awareness of the need to make concessions to the “spirit of the times.” In general, the policy of Nicholas I was conservative throughout his reign. The main directions of activity were: strengthening autocratic power; further bureaucratization and centralization of the country; work aimed at creating a police state. The key problem remained the peasant question. Understanding the need to abolish serfdom, Nicholas did not set himself the task of eliminating it.
In the second quarter of the 19th century, significant changes occurred in some European countries (general liberalization of the political system, entry of new social strata of society into the arena of political struggle). In Russia, these processes were significantly slowed down: the State Council lost its importance in resolving state issues; the system of ministries was actually replaced by His Imperial Majesty's Own Office (it became a government agency and was divided into departments - I department - the personal office of the emperor, II - codification of laws, III - department was in charge of the political police, IV - managed charitable institutions, etc.) .
In 1826, the III department of the chancellery was created, associated with the implementation of political investigation. His work was supervised by Count A.Kh. Benckendorf, infinitely devoted to Nicholas I. The country was enveloped in a network of agents and spies. In 1827, a corps of gendarmes was created and several gendarmerie districts were introduced. Thus, for virtually the first time in Russia, an effective police system arose, which made it possible to slow down the revolutionary movement and suppress dissent for a long time.
Upon ascending the throne, Nicholas I declared his intention to ensure the rule of law for the country. For this purpose, work was carried out to codify (streamline) Russian legislation. MM. Speransky, returned from exile, headed the activities of the II department of the chancellery. As a result, the “Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire” appeared in 45 volumes and the “Code of Current Laws” in 15 volumes.
Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century remained an agrarian country. Peasants made up the bulk of the population. It was the peasant question that was the main one and required an immediate solution. But the government limited itself to only half-measures aimed at mitigating serfdom. In 1841, a law was passed prohibiting the sale of peasants individually and without land; in 1843 - landless nobles were deprived of the right to acquire serfs; in 1842 the law on “obligated peasants” was passed, which developed the decree of 1803. A number of decrees of this period regulated relations between landowners and peasants; fixed the size of peasant plots and duties; determined the possible punishment. Thus, serfdom was not abolished, but the slave manifestations of serfdom were eliminated.
In 1837 - 1841 a reform of state peasants was carried out. It improved the legal and financial situation of state peasants, who made up about a third of the population. The created Ministry of State Property was supposed to take care of satisfying the economic and everyday needs of the subordinate peasants. At the same time, the reform increased bureaucratic pressure on the state village and minimized the activities of peasant self-government bodies (they became dependent on the local administration).
The sphere of education and enlightenment has developed quite contradictorily. On the one hand, the progressive development of the country required its improvement and expansion, on the other hand, the government tried in every possible way to establish strict control over it. In 1828, the Charter of lower and secondary educational institutions was approved. He consolidated a closed class system of education (parish schools for the lower strata of the population; district schools for townspeople of non-noble origin; gymnasiums for the children of nobles and officials). In 1835, a new statute was introduced that deprived universities of much of their autonomy. Strict political control was established, clear regulation of university life was introduced, tuition fees were increased, student enrollment was reduced, and the teaching of state law and philosophy was abolished. The government's increased response to enlightenment and education occurred after the revolutionary upheavals that took place in Western Europe in 1848-1849. Relations with Western Europe were reduced, foreigners were prohibited from entering Russia, and Russians were prohibited from traveling abroad. The era of “censorship terror” has arrived. But life demanded further development of higher education. Despite the punitive measures taken by the government, previously closed educational institutions were restored and new ones appeared, training general specialists.
The most important instrument of ideological work with the people was the Orthodox Church. Much attention was paid to the “purity of the Orthodox faith” and maintaining the state significance of the church.
Kankrina
Socio-economic development of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
With the abolition of serfdom, which hampered the development of industry, some stagnation occurred (many forced laborers left the factories), but then rapid industrial growth began. Mechanical engineering production increased 3 times, steel production increased 2 times, and oil production increased 200 times. Already in the 1860s. factories produced more than 50% of manufacturing products, the share of which in all industrial production reached almost 2/3. The flourishing of industry was due to the release of millions of workers, government investments, and the development of railways. The concentration of production increased. In 1879, there were 81 enterprises with more than 1,000 workers. In Russia there was a formation of the working class - the proletariat, which began to actively fight for its rights. Already in the 1880s. (under Alexander III) labor legislation emerged: the exploitation of child and female labor was limited, fines from workers ceased to go to factory owners, a factory inspectorate was created, etc.
Political movements in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. Power and opposition.
The weakening of censorship and repression under Alexander II led to the growth of a social movement. Both nobles and various intelligentsia actively participated in it.
Liberals. Their leaders were A. M. Unkovsky, B. N. Chicherin, K. D. Kavelin. They sought the introduction of civil and political freedoms, improvement of the lives of peasants, the abolition of class barriers, and some - a constitution. However, the bulk of the intelligentsia understood that if a constitution and parliament were introduced, the nobles, the most influential group in society, would prevail in the latter. In 1880-1881 The Minister of Internal Affairs was M. T. Loris-Melikov, who weakened censorship and successfully established contact with liberals in order to deprive the revolutionaries of their support, but after the death of Alexander II, he resigned.
Democratic revolutionaries. They nurtured the idea of overthrowing the autocracy and transitioning to socialism. At first they grouped around the magazine “Sovremennik” by N. G. Chernyshevsky. The publications of Herzen (who lived in England) “The Bell” and “The Polar Star” were popular.
In the 70s of the 19th century, several similar movements of utopian socialism emerged, called “populism.” The populists believed that thanks to the peasant community and the qualities of the peasant, Russia could directly transition to a socialist system. Views of populist theorists (Bakunin, Lavrov, Tkachev): the main obstacle to socialism in the state. Authorities; must rouse the people to revolt and lead them to victory.
Numerous populist circles arose throughout the European part of Russia. Among them, the community of “Tchaikovites” (Tchaikovsky, Kropotkin, Perovskaya, etc.) stood out. Members of the society conducted propaganda among peasants and workers, and then led the “going to the people.” The goal is to prepare a peasant uprising. Many populists settled in the village as teachers, doctors, etc. However, their calls did not find a response; the peasants handed over the propagandists to the authorities. In 77-78 The trial of the populists took place (trial 193).
At the end of 76 A new organization of populists arose - “Land and Freedom”. The Zemlya Volya residents began to publish the newspaper “Land and Freedom”. Two currents: some were inclined to continue propaganda work and united in the “Black Limit”, others considered terrorism the only means of struggle and united in the “People's Will”. “Ch.P” existed until 81, by which time all its members (Plekhanov, Zasulich, Deitch) either emigrated or moved to “N.V”. “N.V.” united circles of students, workers, and officers. In Aug.79 They sentenced A2 to death and after several assassination attempts he was mortally wounded by a bomb thrown by the Narodnaya Volya member Grinevitsky. All participants in the murder of A2 were detained and publicly hanged.
Caucasian War of the 19th century.
In 1817 The Caucasian War began - the tribes of Chechnya, Dagestan, and Abkhazia rebelled. In 1834 they were led by Imam Shamil. The ideology of the Islamic movement was muridism, which introduced strict rules of conduct among Muslims. The main goal of the Russian government was officially declared to be the “pacification” of the highlanders, expressed primarily in their refusal to raid. A. P. Ermolov, M. S. Vorontsov, A. I. Baryatinsky acted against the highlanders. Only in 1859 Shamil surrendered in the village of Gunib. In 1864, the last stronghold of the rebels, Kbaada, fell. Some local residents left the Caucasus. Highlanders captured during punitive expeditions were in the position of prisoners of war, while those captured on “Russian” territory were charged with criminal charges for robbery. They were awaiting trial, prison companies, exile to Siberia or to the internal provinces. Anyone who took part in a raid after taking an oath of submission could be shot as a traitor. A feature of the war in the Caucasus was the presence in the ranks of the opponents of a large number of fugitive soldiers - Russians, Tatars and Poles. Victory in the Caucasian War was largely ensured by the changes that became the response of Russian troops to the military, cultural and climatic realities of this region. Its development by the Russians intensified.
Anti-Hitler coalition.
One of the main tasks of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union was the creation of an anti-Hitler coalition. Prerequisites for its formation were: liberation goals in the war for most countries; the general danger that came from the fascist bloc.
On June 22, 1941, British Prime Minister Churchill, and on June 24, US President Roosevelt, announced their countries’ intention to assist the Soviet Union in its fight against Germany
On July 12, 1941, the Anglo-Soviet Agreement on joint action in the war against Germany was signed, the USSR and England pledged to provide each other with assistance and support, as well as not to negotiate, not to conclude a truce or peace treaty, except with mutual consent. The USSR's proposal to open a front in northern France was rejected.
In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill, meeting in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Canada, signed the so-called charter, which set out the official goals of the United States and Great Britain. The charter was formulated in a democratic spirit. But it indicated ways to eliminate the fascist order. To fulfill these mutual obligations, there were three forms of cooperation between the states of the coalition: military, war - and became one of the program documents of the anti-Hitler coalition.
material assistance, political.
In order to materialize all the resources of the allied countries, a conference of three powers was held in Moscow (September 29-October 1, 1941) - the Soviet Union, the USA and Great Britain, which decided on Anglo-American supplies of weapons and strategic materials for the next nine months. Soon the US government provided the Soviet Union with a loan in the amount of $1 billion, and extended the Lend-Lease law to the USSR.
The victory near Moscow (December 1941) contributed to the final formation of the anti-Hitler coalition. On May 26, 1942, an agreement was signed in London between the USSR and Great Britain on an alliance in the war against Nazi Germany and its accomplices in Europe. The agreement also provided for cooperation and mutual assistance after the war.
At the same time, there were deep differences between the participants in the anti-fascist coalition regarding the goals of the war and the program for the post-war world order.
The Soviet Union saw the goals of the war as the defeat of Nazi Germany, the liberation of enslaved peoples, the restoration of democracy, and the creation of conditions for lasting peace. The USA and Great Britain considered the main goal of the war to weaken Germany and Japan as their main competitors. At the same time, the Western powers sought to maintain Germany and Japan as a military force to fight against the USSR.
Throughout the war, the USSR strictly observed its allied obligations. During Soviet-British and Soviet-American negotiations, an agreement was reached on the opening of a second front in Europe in 1942.
After the battle of Stalingrad, and even more so of Kursk, the ruling circles of the USA and England came to the conclusion that the USSR alone could defeat Germany and liberate Europe.
In October 1943, a conference of foreign ministers of the three powers was held in Moscow, at which the Western allies informed the Soviet side about plans to open a second front in May-June 1944, which was clearly belated, because the outcome of the war was a foregone conclusion. The USSR suffered the greatest losses in the war, but on the other hand, the offensive of the allied forces accelerated the defeat of Nazi Germany, chaining up to 1/3 of its ground forces.
The offensive of the counter-revolution.
3) An attempt to resolve the issues raised by the revolution through gradual reform of the country and the development of parliamentarism.
Analysis of the events of 1905-1907 allows us to answer the question of which of the 3 alternative paths turned out to be real. The power of the government camp led by the autocracy, the disinterest of the bourgeoisie in the decisive victory of the revolution, the social and national heterogeneity of the revolutionary democratic camp, the intense rivalry between political leaders. parties and organizations, political the inexperience of the people, their disunity and disorganization, the inertia of thinking accumulated over almost 3 centuries of serfdom, the current international situation - all this and much more led to the fact that the outcome of the First Russian Revolution was partial modernization of state building and its further evolution towards transformation into a bourgeois monarchy. Under the current conditions, the idea of a right-wing state had the least chance of success, because During the revolution, the Russian bourgeoisie discovered its political system. weakness. Low watering played a significant role in this. mass culture
Kornilov rebellion.
The positions of right-wing radicals are strengthening, and the idea of establishing a military dictatorship is gaining momentum. Consideration of Kornilov's candidacy for the post of dictator, but Kerensky removes him from the post of Commander-in-Chief. troops, Kornilov did not obey and on August 25, Kornilov launched an attack on Petrograd with the aim of establishing a military dictatorship. This threat forced Kerensky to appeal to the people and further cooperate with the Bolsheviks. On August 30, the rebel troops were stopped and Kornilov was arrested. The suppression of the Kornilov revolt meant the defeat of the right camp, and the chances of the left increased sharply. After this, the prestige of Kerensky and the Cadets fell, the influence of the Bolsheviks increased, and at the end of August - beginning of September, the Petrograd and Moscow soviets adopted a resolution to seize all state power. In response, an attempt was made to strengthen the central supreme power. On August 30, a new authority was created - a Directorate consisting of five people, headed by Minister-Chairman Kerensky. On September 1, Russia was proclaimed a republic; on September 15, an All-Russian Democratic Party was created in Petrograd. meeting, the goal was to undermine the influence of the Bolshevik Soviets, at the meeting the Dem was created. Council of the Republic (Pre-Parliament), on its behalf, Kerensky formed 3 coalition rights based on a compromise between moderate socialists and the Cadets, however, his power became increasingly illusory. The revolution entered a new phase; the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, began preparations for the seizure of the political forces. authorities.
The policy of the “military commissar” not only did not lead Russia out of economic ruin, but also aggravated it. The disruption of market relations caused the collapse of finances and a reduction in production in industry and agriculture. The population of the cities was starving.
Education of the USSR.
By the beginning of the 20s, on the territory of the former Russian Empire there were several state formations: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian, Bel Azerb, the Armenian and Georgian SSR, the Bukhara and Khorezm People's Socialist Republics, the Far Eastern Republic. With the end of the civil war, political cooperation between the republics was preserved and economic cooperation deepened.
Aug1922 The Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP(b) formed a commission to prepare a bill on a new form of state association. Stalin developed a plan for “autonomization”, which infringed on the sovereign rights of peoples, and therefore the majority of party and state leaders of the republics spoke out against it. In October-November, after discussing the issue of the form of government, Lenin’s idea of forming a union state as a federation of equal republics was adopted.
Dec 1922 - Congresses of Soviets were held in all republics, the participants approved Lenin's proposal.
10Dec192 2 - The First All-Union Congress of Soviets approved the Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the USSR (RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR and ZSFSR). Voluntary association, equality of republics, the right of their free secession from the union. At the congress, the Central Executive Committee of the USSR was elected (Kalinin, Petrovsky, Chervyakov, Narimanov). The Council of People's Commissars of the USSR should have exercised power before the adoption of the Constitution.
July1923- The II session of the Central Election Commission adopted the Constitution.
Jan1924 The Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR approved the Constitution. It legislated the formation of the USSR, the form of government - a federation of republics with the right of free exit and the autonomy to resolve issues of internal politics, justice, education, health care and social security. The supreme legislative body is the All-Union Congress of Soviets, and during the breaks between congresses there is a bicameral Central Executive Committee: the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. The Council of People's Commissars of the USSR will exercise power (all-Union People's Commissariats, the State Bank, and the State Planning Committee were formed under the Council of People's Commissars). The Constitution established a single union citizenship for citizens of all republics.
NEP BEGINS
1) March 1921 - At the 20th Congress of the RCP (b), a resolution was adopted to replace the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind (announced before the sowing season, 2 times less than the surplus appropriation system).
2) Private trade in grain is allowed. Development of commodity-money relations.
3) Denationalization of small and medium industry. Self-financing (self-financing, self-sufficiency) has been introduced at state-owned enterprises. Widespread use of foreign capital, use of old specialists.
4) Financial reform - a unified State Bank was restored, cooperative and private banks appeared, the taxation system, fees for utilities, and transport were restored. The gold chervonets was introduced. Inflation has stopped.
5) 1922 - new Labor Code, abolition of universal labor service.
1825 - the tax in kind was eliminated, a cash tax was introduced, which indicates stabilization. The ban on renting land and hiring labor was lifted, peasants received the right to go to farms and farms. Bukharin: "Get rich."
NEP contradictions:
The struggle in the Soviet leadership between Stalin, Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev (Lenin dies in January 1924).
In the sphere of politics during the years of the NEP, liberal changes did not occur: unitarism in ideology, the defeat of the opposition (at the beginning of 1921, the Menshevik leaders were arrested and put on trial, in the fall of 1922 - the “philosophical ship”, the expulsion of the intelligentsia). Either liberalization of politics or destruction of the existing economy. 35% of peasants (the poorest) opposed the NEP, because were deprived of subsidies. Personnel problem (leaders are former regiment commanders, often without education).
The crises of 1923 and 1925 were avoided using economic methods. A crisis 1927-28 called:
1) aggravation of the international situation: raids on Soviet missions, severance of diplomatic relations with London. This caused a rush of demand for essential goods, followed by a commodity famine.
2) 1927 was a bad year for grain crops; industrial crops yielded well. Peasants hold onto grain until spring.
1928 - problem of food supply to the army and cities.
Apr 1928 - The Plenum of the Central Committee considers the causes of the crisis and determines ways out. Two points of view on the reasons: Bukharin - shortcomings of the economic mechanism. The solution is economic measures and increasing purchasing prices; Stalin - the fists are to blame, the solution is to fight them. The bet on force won: the forcible confiscation of grain, the article of the Criminal Code on speculation of 1928 (ban on the transportation of grain to foreign regions). As a result, there is a reduction in acreage and the slaughter of livestock to leave the wealthy category. At the end of 1928, cards were introduced for a number of products.
Results of the NEP:
1) weakening of exploitation of peasants
2) the standard of living of the population increases
3) the financial situation has improved, inflation has disappeared
4) exit from foreign policy isolation
The apogee of autocracy" under Nicholas I.
Nicholas ascended the throne (1825-1855) unprepared to rule, frightened by the Decembrist rebellion, and hating revolutionaries. The social system and government apparatus of Russia needed serious reforms. He decided to carry out reforms under his direct command. “His Majesty’s Own Office” was divided into 6 departments: 1st personal papers of the sovereign, 2nd modification of legislation, 3rd tax collection, 4th charitable and educational institutions, 5th administration of state peasants, 6th Caucasian affairs. The modification of legislation was entrusted to Speransky. In 1830 A complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire was completed. By 33 a set of current laws of Russia was compiled. Empire. Under N1, the formation of the bureaucratic machine was completed. N1 was interested in the peasant question. He organized secret committees on peasant affairs, which collected information and wrote memos. But N1 did not dare to break the existing order. N1 a special ministry of state was established. Property (Kiselev), cat. took care of satisfying the needs of the peasants, demarcated land, established savings and loan banks, schools, and hospitals. The bodies of the municipality in the provinces were the state chambers. property, the provinces were divided into districts. The volost and rural administration were built on the beginning of peasant self-government. Among the internal measures of Nicholas's reign, financial reform should be mentioned Kankrina(39-43) Old paper money was withdrawn and new ones were issued, silver and banknotes were changed in a ratio of 1 to 1. New university charter 35. transferred the leadership of education to the trustees of educational districts and limited university autonomy. In '49 The Minister of Public Education introduces strict supervision over university teaching. At 48 A special committee is established to monitor the press, which takes the matter of book censorship to absurd extremes.
Question No. 18. “Apogee of autocracy.” Reforms of Nicholas I.
1) During the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855), the autocratic form of government reached its apogee. The emperor sought to rule in isolation from society, experiencing distrust of it (caused by the Decembrist uprising). This led to the fact that the only support of his absolute power was the bureaucratic apparatus that tripled during the years of his rule, a modernized police force, a submissive church and a colossal army, which he used primarily to suppress liberation movements both within the country and abroad. The main goal of his reign was the fight against the revolution, for which he tightened control over all spheres of public life by: 1. Creating a new political police - the gendarmerie, which was subordinate to the III department of the Emperor's Own Chancellery. Its activities were aimed not only at identifying opponents of the regime, but also at preventing political crimes (for which surveillance, denunciations, and secret agents were used). 2. Tightening censorship. Any criticism of the regime and its representatives was unacceptable. A huge number of government institutions received censorship rights. 3. Reactionary policy in the field of education. Education again became class-based (universities and gymnasiums for nobles, district schools for merchants and townspeople, parish schools for peasants). Subjects requiring independent thinking were excluded from the programs. Control over the education sector by government agencies was tightened. Numerous types of repression were envisaged against violators of a very strict educational discipline. 4. Creation of their own ideological doctrine that substantiated the inviolability of autocracy - the “theory of official nationality” developed by S. S. Uvarov. She promoted “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality” as supposedly the fundamental “beginnings of Russian life.” They, according to the authors of the theory, meant the absence of a basis for social protest against absolutism - the people in Russia love the Tsar as a father, and this love is based on the solid foundation of Orthodoxy. This theory was introduced into the consciousness of society through educational institutions, the official press, literature, and theater.
2) However, Nicholas understood that it was impossible to strengthen the empire with restrictions and repressions alone. Therefore, he also carried out a number of reforms that made it possible to temporarily stabilize the socio-economic situation in the empire: 1. Codification of legislation carried out by M. M. Speransky. It made it possible to somewhat limit the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy, inevitable under an autocratic-bureaucratic regime. In 1830, a collection of all Russian laws issued from 1649 to 1825 was compiled - the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire (45 books), and in 1832 - on its basis - a collection of current law - “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire” (8 books ). 2. Reform of the state village (1837-1841), carried out by P. D. Kiselyov. It made it possible to somewhat improve the situation of state peasants. Peasant self-government was introduced. Hospitals and veterinary centers appeared in the state village. Recruitment and land use were streamlined. In case of hunger strikes, the so-called “public plowing” was provided, the harvest from which would go to the public fund. 3. Financial reform (1839-1843) implemented by E. F. Kankrin. By maintaining a strict proportion between paper credit notes and silver, it was possible to achieve a budget deficit and strengthen the country's financial system. However, in general, the successes of Nicholas's domestic policy turned out to be very limited and short-lived. The reason for this is the preservation of the autocratic-bureaucratic system and serfdom. They hampered the development of the country and ultimately led to the sad end of Nicholas' reign - the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856).
The years of the reign of Nicholas I (1825 - 1855) are assessed by historians as the “apogee of autocracy.”
The influence of the Decembrist uprising on the reign of Nicholas I A. F. Tyutchev “He sincerely and sincerely believed that he was able to see everything with his own eyes, hear everything with his own ears, regulate everything according to his own understanding, transform everything with his own will. He never forgot what, when and to whom he ordered, and ensured the exact execution of his orders.” The order that Nikolai strove for: ØStrict centralization; ØComplete unity of command; ØUnconditional submission of the lower to the higher. Ø Constant struggle against the revolutionary movement, persecution of everything advanced and progressive in the country
One of the primary tasks of the internal political course of Nicholas I was to strengthen the police bureaucratic apparatus; numerous secret committees and commissions were established, which were under the direct authority of the tsar and often replaced ministries.
The government of Nicholas I focused on three major problems: administrative - improving public administration, social - the peasant issue, ideological - the system of education and enlightenment.
The principle of the regime of personal power of the monarch was embodied in the expanding “own office” of the king. The Tsar's Office became its first department, whose responsibilities included preparing papers for the emperor and monitoring the execution of his orders.
Strengthening the role of the state apparatus His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery Department 2: Codification of laws Department 1: Monitoring the execution of the emperor's orders Department 3: Body of political investigation and control over mental attitudes 4 department created to deal with women's schools and charity 5 department created in For the reform of state peasants . 6th department. Created in Caucasus Governance
On January 31, 1826, the Second Department was created “to implement the code of domestic laws,” which was called “codification.”
The codification (streamlining) of legislation was carried out by the II Department of the Chancellery under the leadership of Speransky. M. M. The “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire” set out the current laws.
Preparation of a Unified Code of Laws. 1830 1833 Legislative acts from the Collection of laws of the “Conciliar Code” of 1649 to the end of the Russian Empire in 45 t. Alexander. I Code of Laws of the Russian Empire in 15 volumes. Legislative acts classified according to their scope. M. Speransky carried out codification in 5 years.
Herzen called the III Department “an armed inquisition, police Freemasonry,” placed “outside the law and above the law.” The favorite of Nicholas I, General A.H. Benckendorf, was placed at the head of the III department; he was also the chief of the gendarmes.
In 1828, the IV department was added, which managed educational, educational and other “charitable” institutions included in the department named after Empress Maria Feodorovna (the Tsar’s mother)
Attempts to Solve the Peasant Question In 1842, a decree was issued on “obligated” peasants. Landowners could release peasants with land into hereditary possession, but in exchange for this the peasants had to perform various duties in favor of the landowners.
In 1837 - 1841 reform was carried out in the state village by P. D. Kiselev. The sale of serfs for debts was prohibited; “retail” sales of members of the same family were also prohibited, peasant volost and rural self-government were introduced
Attempts to Solve the Peasant Question Schools were opened in state-owned villages; by 1854, 26 thousand schools with 110 thousand students were opened. In order to protect peasants from crop failures, it was decided to create “public plowing”. Here the peasants worked together and enjoyed the fruits of their common labor.
Attempts to Solve the Peasant Question 1847 Serfs received the right to redeem their freedom if their owner's estate was put up for sale for debts; in 1848 they were given the right to purchase unoccupied lands and buildings. Serfdom in Russia continued to be preserved.
Strengthening the Noble Class Nicholas I paid great attention to the task of strengthening the noble class. The order of inheritance of large estates was changed. Now they could not be crushed and were passed on to the eldest in the family. Since 1928, only children of nobles and officials were admitted to secondary and higher educational institutions.
Strengthening the nobility Decree on majorates of 1845. Raising the ranks that gave the right to the title of nobility (1845). Strengthening the role of noble assemblies.
There were two degrees of honorary citizens: hereditary (merchants of the first guild, scientists, artists, children of personal nobles and clergy with educational qualifications) and personal (officials up to the 12th rank) Honorary citizens: hereditary personal
The basis of public education under Nicholas I was the principle of strict class and bureaucratic centralization, which was embodied in the Charter of educational institutions published in 1828.
On July 26, 1835, the “General Charter of Imperial Russian Universities” was published and a number of special educational institutions were established: the Institute of Technology, the School of Architecture, the Imperial School of Law, the Agricultural Institute, the Main Pedagogical Institute, and the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg.
Introduction of Censorship To curb the press, Nicholas introduced strict censorship. Censorship was under the authority of the Ministry of Public Education, which was headed by S. S. Uvarov. “Charter on Censorship” of 1826, called “cast iron”. It was forbidden to admit serfs to secondary and higher educational institutions. S. S. Uvarov.
And yet, despite censorship strictures, in the 30s and 40s “The Inspector General” and “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, the stories by A.I. Herzen “Doctor Krupov” and “Who is to blame?” were published.
In 30 -40 years. In the 19th century, the industrial revolution began in Russia. The industrial revolution refers to the historical period of transition from manufacturing - enterprises based on manual labor - to machine production. The Industrial Revolution began primarily in the cotton industry
From the mid-30s. Railway construction began. Following the first railway from St. Petersburg to Tsarskoe Selo, built in 1837 (6 steam locomotives purchased abroad operated), the Warsaw-Vienna (1848) and Nikolaevskaya, connecting St. Petersburg with Moscow (1851), were launched.
Reforms of E. F. Kankrin By 1825, Russia's external debt reached 102 million rubles in silver Minister of Finance Kankrin: He limited government spending, used credit carefully, pursued a policy of patronage of Russian industry and trade, and imposed high duties on industrial goods imported into Russia. In 1839-1843 Kankrin carried out a monetary reform. The silver ruble became the main means of payment. Then credit notes were issued, which could be freely exchanged for silver. Thanks to these measures, Kankrin achieved a deficit-free state budget and strengthened the country's financial position. The proportion between the number of banknotes and the state reserve of silver was maintained.
“Foreign Policy of Nicholas I”: Directions of foreign policy a) Western European direction b) Middle Eastern Western European direction a) b) c) d) Russian-Polish War of 1830-1831. 1848 – revolution in France. March 1848 - summer 1849 - revolution in Germany. March 3, 1848 - September 5, 1849 – revolution in Hungary. Middle Eastern direction. a) War in Transcaucasia b) Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829.
The main task of Russian foreign policy in Western Europe was to maintain the old monarchical regimes and fight the revolutionary movement. Nicholas was impressed by the role of international gendarme in Europe, which Russia assumed in connection with the formation of the “Holy Alliance”.
Russian-Polish War of 1830-1831. It began on November 29, 1830 and lasted until October 21, 1831. The slogan is the restoration of the “historical Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth” within the borders of 1772. The Sejm adopted an act deposing Nicholas and banning the Romanov dynasty from occupying the Polish throne. By the end of the uprising, the army numbered 80,821 people. The number of all troops that were supposed to be used against the Poles reached 183 thousand.
In 1848-1849, a new, even more powerful, flurry of revolutions swept across Europe. Nicholas I took an active part in their suppression.
The second and main direction of Russian foreign policy in the 20-50s was the solution of the eastern question. In the south, a very difficult relationship developed with the Ottoman Empire and Iran.
The desire of tsarism to extend its influence into the Caucasus met stubborn resistance from the peoples of Dagestan, Chechnya, and Adygea. In 1817, the Caucasian War began, which lasted for many years.
The famous Shamil appeared in the mountains of Dagestan. In the central part of Chechnya, Shamil created a strong theocratic state - an imamate with its capital in Vedeno. In 1854 Shamil was defeated
The Caucasian War lasted for almost half a century (from 1817 to 1864) and cost many victims (Russian troops lost 77 thousand people in this war).
In the late 20s and early 30s, Russia's foreign policy in the Caucasus and Balkans was extremely successful. The Russian-Persian War of 1826-1828 ended with the defeat of Persia, and Armenia and Northern Azerbaijan became part of Russia.
The war with Turkey (1828 -1829), also successful for Russia. As a result of the Russian-Turkish and Russian-Iranian wars of the late 20s of the 19th century, Transcaucasia was finally included in the Russian Empire: Georgia, Eastern Armenia, Northern Azerbaijan. From that time on, Transcaucasia became an integral part of the Russian Empire.
Defense of Sevastopol September 1854 - August 1855 Heroes of the defense of Sevastopol: Admirals: Kornilov, Istomin, Nakhimov Military doctor: N.I. Pirogov - first use of anesthesia First nurse of mercy: Dasha Sevastopolskaya Scout sailor: Koshka Military engineering: General Totleben - fortifications
Malakhov Kurgan, a dominant height southeast of Sevastopol. On August 27, 1855, superior French forces captured the Malakhov Kurgan, after which Russian troops left the southern side of Sevastopol.
The end of the war of 1855 - the death of Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin August 1855 - Sevastopol was captured. The fall of Sevastopol = the end of the war. The new emperor, AII, is negotiating peace. March 1856 – Peace of Paris. Russia loses part of Bessarabia, protection over Serbia and the Danube principalities. The most humiliating thing for Russia is the Black Sea = neutral. Russia has no right to have military fortifications there. Sevastopol was exchanged for the Kars fortress.
In the first half of the 19th century. The process of Kazakhstan's voluntary entry into the Russian Empire was completed and the annexation of Central Asia began.
