French Empire at the beginning of the 19th century. France of the 19th century was a country of savages. The influence of humanism and the Renaissance on the development of the kingdom

France in the 19th centuryFrance in the 19th century was a kind of standard for the socio-political development of Europe. All processes characteristic of this stage took especially dramatic and extremely contradictory forms in France. The richest colonial power, which had high industrial and commercial potential, was suffocating from internal contradictions. Screaming facts of fantastic wealth and depressing poverty shocked the imagination

and became the leading theme of the major writers of this period A. France, Emile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, Romain Rolland, Alphonse Daudet and many others. In the works of these writers, stereotypically stable metaphors and images appear, taken from the living world and used to indicate the essence of the new gentlemen and heroes of France. We are disgusting barbarians, living the lives of animals, he wrote with bitterness

Maupassant. It is extremely significant that even Maupassant, a man extremely far from active politics, comes to the idea of revolution. Naturally, it was in France that the atmosphere of spiritual confusion gave rise to an endless number of literary movements and trends. There were also clearly bourgeois among them, who openly came to the defense of a completely prosperous bourgeois, but these were still an undoubted minority. Even writers who are close in certain ways to decadence - symbolists, cubists, impressionists and others -

Most of them proceeded from hostility to the bourgeois world, but they were all looking for a way out of the framework of bourgeois existence, striving to grasp the novelty of fast-flowing events, to get closer to the knowledge of incredibly expanded ideas about man. The realism of this period also underwent enormous changes - not so much externally, but internally. In their conquests of this period, realist writers relied on the vast experience of classical realism of the 19th century, but could no longer ignore the new horizons of human life and society,

new discoveries of science and philosophy, new searches for contemporary trends and directions. Rejecting the moral indifference of naturalists who tried to turn the writer into a recorder of facts, into an unemotional objective photographer, devoid of imagination, ideal, or dreams, realists of the end of the century take into their arsenal scientific conscientiousness and in-depth study of the subject of the image. The genre of popular science literature they created plays a huge role in the development of the literature of this

time. Not accepting the extremes of other directions, realists did not remain indifferent to the discoveries of symbolist writers, impressionists and others. The deep internal restructuring of realism was associated with experimentation, bold testing of new means, but still retained the character of typification. The main achievements of mid-century realism are qualitatively deepened - psychologism, social analysis - the sphere of realistic representation is expanded, genres are raised to new artistic heights.

Guy de Maupassant Maupassant 1850-1993, like his teacher Flaubert, was a stern realist who never betrayed his views. He passionately, painfully hated the bourgeois world and everything connected with it. If the hero of his book, a representative of another class, sacrificed at least something, joining the bourgeoisie, Maupassant did not spare him, and here all means were good for the writer.

He painfully searched for the antitheses of this world - and found in the democratic strata of society, in the French people. works of short story - Pumpkin, Old Woman Sauvage, Madwoman, Captives, Chair Weavers, Pope Simon. Alphonse Dode Dode 1840-1897 - a somewhat unexpected phenomenon against the background of the literature of this period and at the same time a phenomenon , closely related to the development of creativity of his fellow writers, outwardly distant from him as

Maupassant, Roland, France. A gentle and kind man, Daudet was stubborn in many matters. He followed his own path, managing not to fall ill with any of the newfangled literary diseases of the end of the century, and only in the last years of his life, a life filled with eternal labor and necessity, did he pay tribute to fashionable naturalism. The works of the novel Tartarin of Tarascon, several short stories. Romain Rolland The work of Romain Rolland 1866-1944 occupies a very special place in this period of history.

If Maupassant, Daudet and many other great writers, each in their own way, painfully searched for positive principles in a poorly structured world, then for Rolland the meaning of being and creativity initially lay in faith in the beautiful, the good, the bright, which never left the world; you just need to be able to see, feel and convey to people. the works of the novel by Jean Christoff, the story of Pierre and Luce. Gustave Flaubert His work indirectly reflected the contradictions of the French revolution in the middle

nineteenth century. The desire for truth and hatred of the bourgeoisie were combined in him with social pessimism and lack of faith in the people. This inconsistency and duality can be found in the philosophical searches and political views of the writer, in his attitude to art. The works of the novel - Madame Bovary, Salammbeau, Education of the Senses, Bouvard and Pécuchet are not finished, the story - The Legend of Julian the Stranger,

A simple soul, Herodias, also created several plays and extravaganza. Stendhal The work of this writer opens the period of classical realism. It was Stendhal who took the lead in substantiating the main principles and program for the formation of realism, theoretically stated in the first half of the 19th century, when romanticism still reigned, and soon brilliantly embodied in the artistic masterpieces of the outstanding novelist of that time. works of novels -

Parma Convent, Armans, Lucien Levene, stories by Vittoria Accoramboni, Duchess di Palliano, Cenci, Abbess of Castro.

In 1815, the pope was again recognized as the head of the papal state and the entire Catholic world. Pius VII restored the Jesuit order. Napoleon's exile on the island of Elba. Emigrants returned to France.

On July 10, 1815, the first government of the restoration period was formed, headed by Talleyrand and Fouche.

In September of the same year, Talleyrand was dismissed, and the new government was headed by the Duke of Richelieu.

The king was forced to approve at least the most basic principles of the French Revolution and ruled as a monarch limited by the constitution. The peace treaty after Napoleon's hundred-day reign was much harsher for France this time. France, under its terms, returned to the borders of 1789 and was obliged to pay an indemnity. Allied troops remained on French territory until all payments were completed. Very large-scale purges were undertaken in the government and armed forces in order to expel the Bonapartists. On the basis of the ordinance on July 24, 1815, a number of persons, a list of which was compiled by the Minister of Police Fouche, were put on trial, including Marshal Ney; many were executed, many were sentenced to exile or exile.

With the secondary accession of Louis XVIII, an extreme reaction began, which took on the dimensions of terror (French Terreur blanche - white terror) with which the government, due to criminal weakness, could not cope. On the part of the royalists, outbreaks of atrocities began against the Bonapartists, Republicans and Protestants, mainly in the south of France (in Toulouse, Marseille, Toulon, Nimes, etc.)

In Marseilles, the mob destroyed the Mameluke garrison and families, killing about 100 people. In Nîmes, political passions were complicated by religious fanaticism. Protestant houses were looted and their churches were locked. For several weeks in July, a gang of royalists, led by Trestallion (a Dupont worker), raged in Nîmes.

Marshal Brun was killed in Avignon, and his corpse was thrown into the Rhone because he kept the royalists from violence in Marseilles and Toulon (August 2, 1815). The same fate befell General Ramel.

Trestallion was arrested by General Lagarde, but the latter was killed by soldiers of the National Guard and was acquitted at trial. In Uzès, Jean Graffan robbed the inhabitants, arrested the national guards, and shot them (August 25, 1815), committing all these crimes in the name of the king.

Order in the Garde department was restored with the arrival of Austrian troops. In the south of France, committees were organized by ultra-royalists to monitor the actions of the government. They arrested thousands of “suspicious” people, kept the population in constant fear, and took control of all local affairs. The clergy acted in concert with the emigrants, in the name of “throne and altar.” The ultra-royalist party prevailed everywhere. This especially affected the elections of August 22, 1815, when the majority was won by the extreme right, which formed the so-called “unprecedented” chamber (chambre introuvable). In total, a short period of white terror led to 300 victims in the south of France.

Despite the return to power of the Bourbon dynasty, France has changed very much compared to the era of the Old Order. The policy of equality and liberalism of the revolutionary period remained a significant force and the restoration of the unlimited monarchy and hierarchy of the previous era was no longer possible in full. Economic changes that began long before the revolution and continued through the years of mass unrest were firmly consolidated in 1815. These changes contributed to the transfer of the dominant role from titled landowners to urban merchants. Napoleon's administrative reforms, such as the Napoleonic Code, as well as an efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. These changes resulted in a uniform central government that was financially uncorrupted and had much stronger control over all areas of French life; and this is a significant difference from the situation in which the Bourbons found themselves before the revolution.

Louis XVIII largely accepted new major changes in society. However, quite often he was pushed towards extreme right-wing measures by various ultra-royalist political groups, led by Count Villel, who condemned the doctrinaires' attempt to combine revolution and monarchy through a constitutional monarchy. Instead, the Chambre introuvable, elected in 1815, exiled all members of the Convention who voted for the execution of Louis XVI and passed several reactionary laws. Louis XVIII, fearing popular uprisings, was forced in 1816 to dissolve this chamber, which was dominated by the far right. Thus, the liberals gained a decisive role in political life until 1820, when the assassination of the famous figure of the far right and the king's nephew, the Duke of Berry, after which the ultra-royalists of Villeul again came to power.

In terms of foreign policy, despite the initial misgivings of the European states, France showed no signs of returning to its previous aggressive foreign policy and in 1818 it was invited to participate in the so-called Concert of Europe System. And she successfully strengthened this position in 1823. French troops invaded Spain, where a civil war overthrew King Ferdinand VII. French troops entered Spain, recaptured Madrid from the rebels, and left the country almost as quickly as they entered.

Louis XVIII died in 1824. “Le roi est mort, vive le roi” His brother Charles X (1757-1830-1836) becomes King of France.

King Charles X began to pursue a significantly more conservative policy. He attempted to rule as an absolute monarch and took steps to restore the power of the Catholic Church in France. For example, the already mentioned Chamber of Villelle in 1825 approved the “act against blasphemy.”

Facts of sacrilege in churches began to be punishable by death, and freedom of the press became even more limited. Finally, he began paying compensation to noble families whose property had been destroyed during the Revolution. In 1829, the king, in an authoritarian manner, appointed the odious ultra-royalist Prince Polignac as minister of government. The following year, 1830, popular discontent with these changes spilled onto the streets of Paris. This popular uprising is known in history as the July Revolution of 1830 (also, Three Glorious Days (French Les trois Glorieuses) - July 27, 28 and 29).

The government under the leadership of Count Polignac consistently ignored the House of Representatives. Together with the social problems of the beginning era of industrialization, this policy created acute public discontent by the summer of 1829, which even the conquest of Algeria in the spring of 1830 could not weaken. As with the revolution in 1789, the liberal bourgeoisie, this time reinforced by the ideals of Napoleon Bonaparte, united with the proto-proletarian lower strata of society, who for the first time since 1795 were again able to influence politics. One of the main inspirers of the revolution was the editor-in-chief of the newspaper National, Adolphe Louis Thiers, who became one of the leading French politicians in subsequent governments. The immediate impetus for the July Revolution was the government decrees of July 26, according to which the House of Representatives was dissolved, voting rights were tightened and freedom of speech was further limited.

On July 30, the French tricolor soared over the royal palace, and the Chamber of Deputies proclaimed the Duke of Orleans governor of the kingdom.

On August 7, the Chamber of Deputies offered him the crown, which he accepted on August 9 and was crowned Louis Philippe I, nicknamed the “Citizen King.”

The unrest of the proletarian strata was quickly suppressed. The “Jacobins,” as the ardent anti-monarchists called themselves, were unable to prevail, since the abolition of the monarchy would mean foreign policy complications up to the intervention of the Holy Alliance. The moderate party of the big bourgeoisie, led by Thiers and François Pierre Guizot, came to power. After these events, the era of the July Monarchy began, considered the golden age of the French bourgeoisie.

The July Revolution had an impact throughout Europe. Liberal movements everywhere gained confidence and determination. In some states of the German Confederation, unrest began, resulting in amendments or reissues of existing constitutions. Unrest also began in some Italian states, including the Papal States. However, the July Revolution had its greatest effect on the territory of Poland, divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria, causing the uprising of 1830. Russian troops managed to suppress this uprising only in the fall of 1831.

There were consequences in the immediate vicinity of France. The southern Netherlands rebelled against the rule of the north and declared themselves the independent kingdom of Belgium. Despite its monarchical status, the constitution adopted by Belgium is considered one of the most progressive constitutions in Europe at that time. The final borders of Belgium were determined after some military operations in 1839.

As King Louis Philippe increasingly moved away from his liberal origins and began to join the Holy Alliance, this led in 1848 to a new bourgeois-liberal revolution in France, the so-called February Revolution, as a result of which the Second French Republic was proclaimed . Like the July Revolution, it also led to uprisings and attempted coups throughout Europe. Louis-Philippe, a member of the Orléans branch of the Bourbon dynasty, was the son of Philippe Egalite, who voted for the death penalty for his cousin, King Louis XVI. Louis Philippe ruled not as King of France, but as King of the French. It was obvious to everyone that he received the right to rule from the people, but not from God. He also restored the tricolor as the national flag of France, replacing the white Bourbon flag that had been in force since 1815. This is an important feature, since the tricolor was a symbol of the Revolution. The period of the July Monarchy (1830–1848) in French history is generally characterized by the dominance of the big bourgeoisie, as well as a shift in the center of influence from the counter-revolutionary Legitimist party to the Orléanist party, which was ready to accept certain changes brought about by the French Revolution of 1789. Louis Philippe was crowned King of the French, and not as King of France: this fact marks his agreement with the origin of power from the people, but not from God, as was the case under the Old Order. Louis Philippe was very aware of the basis of his power: the wealthy bourgeoisie elevated him to the top during the July Revolution, influencing parliament, and throughout his reign he took into account their interests.

Louis Philippe, who had flirted with liberals in his youth, abandoned the pomp and ceremony of the Bourbon dynasty and surrounded himself with bankers and merchants. However, the period of the July Monarchy remained a period of unrest and disorder. A large political group of legitimists on the right wing of the political system demanded the restoration of a representative of the Bourbon dynasty to the throne. At the same time, the left, the republicans, and later the socialists, still remained a very influential force. In the later years of his reign, Louis Philippe became even more adamant and categorical. His prime minister, François Guizot, became extremely unpopular with the public, but Louis-Philippe refused to dismiss him. The state of affairs became increasingly critical and the situation escalated into the February Revolution of 1848, which marked the decline of the monarchy and the proclamation of the Second Republic.

However, in the early years of his reign, Louis Philippe attempted a comprehensive and sensible reform of his government. The legal basis for the activities of his government was laid down in the Charter of 1830, written by reform-minded deputies of the lower house of parliament. The main principles laid down in the charter were equality of religions, the restoration of the National Guard to protect civilians, reform of the electoral system, reform of the peerage system and the weakening of royal powers. And in fact, Louis Philippe and his ministers followed a policy of strengthening the basic provisions of the constitution. However, most of these policies were veiled attempts to strengthen the power of the government and the bourgeoisie, instead of legitimately strengthening equality and expanding the rights of the broad mass of the French people. Therefore, despite the apparent movement of the July Monarchy in the direction of reform, such movement was for the most part deceptive and feigned.

During the July Monarchy, the number of citizens entitled to vote roughly doubled, from 94,000 under Charles X to more than 200,000 in 1848. However, this number was only about 1% of the country's population, and only the wealthiest citizens were given the right to vote, paying taxes to the treasury. In addition to simply increasing the presence of the bourgeoisie in the House of Representatives of Parliament, this development of the electoral system made it possible for the bourgeoisie to oppose the aristocracy at the legislative level. Thus, while maintaining a visible commitment to his public vow to increase popular participation in elections, Louis Philippe was in fact increasing the influence of his followers and increasing their control over the French parliament. Including only the wealthiest citizens in the process, among other things, weakened any possibility of the growth of radical factions in parliament.

The renewed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the king - depriving him of the ability to introduce and approve bills, and also limited his executive powers. However, the King of the French sincerely believed that the king, even in the new monarchy, was something more than a figurehead in an elected parliament, and therefore he was quite active in the political life of the country. One of Louis-Philippe's first decisions in the process of forming his cabinet was the appointment of conservative Casimir Perrier to the post of Prime Minister. Perrier, a banker, was instrumental in ending the many Republican secret societies and trade unions that had been formed in the early years of the regime. In addition, he supervised the division of the National Guard after it began to support radical political movements. Of course, all these steps were taken by him with the approval of the king. He once said that many people believe that the suffering of the French is caused by the past revolution. “No, monsieur,” he told another minister, “there was no revolution: there was simply a change of head of state.”

Subsequently, the conservative direction of policy strengthened even more, first under the leadership of Perrier and then the Minister of the Interior Francois Guizot. The ruling regime realized quite early on the threat to its policy of non-intervention from radicalists and republicans. Therefore, already in 1834, the monarchy outlawed republicans. Guizot stopped the activities of Republican clubs and closed Republican publications. Perrier, along with his conservative supporters, removed Republicans, for example, the banker Dupont, from the government. Distrustful of the National Guard, Louis Philippe increased the size of the army and carried out military reform to ensure the loyalty of the military.

Despite the fact that there were always two factions in the cabinet - the liberal conservatives, to which Guizot belonged (Party of the Resistance (French: le parti de la Résistance)), and the liberal reformers, to whom the journalist Louis Adolphe Thiers belonged (Party of the Movement (French: le parti du Mouvement)) - the latter have never been widely known. It is Guizot's leadership that is marked by large-scale harsh measures against republicans and dissidents, as well as a policy of connivance pursued in the interests of business circles. Among these measures were preferential customs tariffs that protected French businessmen. The Guizot government awarded contracts for the construction of railways and mines to those bourgeois who supported the government and, moreover, made certain initial contributions to these projects. In this political system, workers had no right to assemble, organize, or petition the government for higher pay or lower hours. The period of the July Monarchy under the governments of Perrier, Molay and Guizot was an unfavorable period for the lower strata of society. Moreover, Guizot advised those who did not have the right to vote under the current legislation to simply enrich themselves. The king himself was not particularly popular by the mid-1840s and was often called the crowned pear due to his appearance.

It is not surprising that in those years more than ten attempts were made on the king’s life. They were committed both by members of secret societies (for example, Fieschi from the “Society of Human Rights” by Auguste Blanqui, who shot the king on July 28, 1835), and by illiterate individuals who had heard enough of radical propaganda. In 1840, another person who attempted the life of the king, floor polisher Georges Darmes, was asked during the investigation what his profession was. “Tyrant Slayer,” he answered proudly. “I wanted to save France.” General dissatisfaction with the July Monarchy and its head was growing.

Among the workers, dissatisfaction with the difficult social situation, aggravated by the agricultural and trade crisis of 1847, grew into revolutionary sentiments. During this era, there was a cult of Napoleon's personality and in 1841 his body was transported from St. Helena to France, where he was reburied with majestic honors.

Louis Philippe pursued a pacifist foreign policy. Shortly after he came to power in 1830, Belgium rebelled against Dutch rule and declared its independence. The king abandoned plans for an invasion there, as well as any kind of military action outside France. The only exception was the war in Algeria, started by Charles X a few weeks before his overthrow under the pretext of fighting pirates in the Mediterranean. The government of Louis Philippe decided to continue the conquest of this country, which took almost 10 years. By 1848, Algeria was declared an integral part of France.

So, a pre-revolutionary situation is emerging in France.

During those years, a movement for electoral reform arose in France, as in England. In France it was called reformist banquets. To promote reform while circumventing strict prohibitions on unions and meetings, wealthy members of the reform movement held public banquets, first in Paris and then in large provincial cities. The speeches that were made spoke loudly about reform projects, and sometimes sharply criticized the government. From July 1847 to February 1848, about 50 such banquets took place. The irritated head of government, Guizot, on February 21, 1848, banned the next banquet scheduled in the capital. At the same time, he warned the organizers in harsh tones that in case of disobedience, he would use force. In response, unrest began in Paris, which by evening had assumed the scale of a revolution.

On February 22, the day of the forbidden banquet, Parisians began to erect barricades on the streets. As was later calculated, more than one and a half thousand barricades appeared in the capital. Crowds of workers broke into gun shops and took possession of weapons. Alarmed, Guizot tried to disperse the rebels with the help of National Guard troops. However, the guards flatly refused to shoot at the people, and some of them even went over to the side of the rebels. Contrary to expectations, the unrest only intensified.

The mood of the guards opened the eyes of the king. The frightened Louis-Philippe accepted the resignation of the Guizot government on February 23 and announced his decision to form a new cabinet of ministers from reform supporters. This news was greeted with complete delight. Crowds of people continued to remain on the streets, but the mood of the Parisians changed noticeably - instead of menacing exclamations, cheerful talk and laughter were heard. It seemed that the king had a chance to defend his power, but then the unexpected happened. Late in the evening of February 23, a crowd of people gathered in front of the Foreign Ministry hotel. The line infantry guard guarding the building opened fire on those gathered. Who gave the order to start the shooting remains unknown, but this incident decided the outcome of the revolution. The corpses of the dead were placed on carts and driven through the streets, a crowd of angry people followed them with shouts and curses.

On the morning of February 24, Louis-Philippe agreed to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies and propose electoral reform. But these measures had no effect; it was already too late. A huge crowd of rebel Parisians, who stormed the Palais Royal, then surrounded the royal Tuileries Palace, demanding that Louis Philippe leave “following Charles X,” that is, abdicate and emigrate to England.

Not wanting to tempt fate, Louis Philippe did just that, having previously abdicated the throne in favor of his grandson, the young Count of Paris, before leaving. But this categorically did not suit the rebels. As soon as on February 25 they became aware of the intention of the Chamber of Deputies to proclaim the Count of Paris king, a crowd of rebels burst straight into the meeting of the chamber. At gunpoint, deputies proclaimed France a republic and formed a new radical-bourgeois government.

The history of France, which is located in the very center of Europe, began long before the appearance of permanent human settlements. Convenient physical and geographical position, proximity to the seas, rich reserves of natural resources have contributed to France being the “locomotive” of the European continent throughout its history. And this is how the country remains today. Occupying leading positions in the European Union, the UN and NATO, the French Republic remains in the 21st century a state whose history is being created every day.

Location

The country of the Franks, if the name of France is translated from Latin, is located in the region of Western Europe. The neighbors of this romantic and beautiful country are Belgium, Germany, Andorra, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The coast of France is washed by the warm Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The territory of the republic is covered with mountain peaks, plains, beaches, and forests. Hidden among the picturesque nature are numerous natural monuments, historical, architectural, cultural attractions, ruins of castles, caves, and fortresses.

Celtic period

In the 2nd millennium BC. Celtic tribes, whom the Romans called Gauls, came to the lands of the modern French Republic. These tribes became the core of the formation of the future French nation. The Romans called the territory inhabited by the Gauls or Celts Gaul, which was part of the Roman Empire as a separate province.

In the 7th-6th centuries. BC, Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor sailed to Gaul on ships and founded colonies on the Mediterranean coast. Now in their place there are cities such as Nice, Antibes, Marseille.

Between 58 and 52 BC, Gaul was captured by the Roman soldiers of Julius Caesar. The result of more than 500 years of rule was the complete Romanization of the population of Gaul.

During Roman rule, other important events took place in the history of the peoples of future France:

In the 3rd century AD, Christianity entered Gaul and began to spread.
Invasion of the Franks, who conquered the Gauls. After the Franks came the Burgundians, Alemanni, Visigoths and Huns, who completely put an end to Roman rule.
The Franks gave names to the peoples who lived in Gaul, created the first state here, and founded the first dynasty.

The territory of France, even before our era, became one of the centers of constant migration flows that passed from north to south, west to east. All these tribes left their mark on the development of Gaul, and the Gauls adopted elements of various cultures. But it was the Franks who had the greatest influence, who managed not only to drive out the Romans, but also to create their own kingdom in Western Europe.

The first rulers of the Frankish kingdom

The founder of the first state in the vastness of the former Gaul is King Clovis, who led the Franks during their arrival in Western Europe. Clovis was a member of the Merovingian dynasty, which was founded by the legendary Merovey. He is considered a mythical figure, since 100% evidence of his existence is not found. Clovis is considered the grandson of Merovey, and was a worthy successor to the traditions of his legendary grandfather. Clovis led the Frankish kingdom in 481, and by this time he had already become famous for his numerous military campaigns. Clovis converted to Christianity and was baptized in Reims, which happened in 496. This city became the center of baptism for the rest of the kings of France.

Clovis's wife was Queen Clotilde, who together with her husband revered Saint Genevieve. She was the patroness of the capital of France - the city of Paris. The following rulers of the state were named in honor of Clovis, only in the French version this name sounds like “Louis” or Ludovicus.

Clovis The first division of the country between his four sons, who did not leave any special traces in the history of France. After Clovis, the Merovingian dynasty began to gradually fade away, since the rulers practically did not leave the palace. Therefore, the stay in power of the descendants of the first Frankish ruler is called in historiography the period of lazy kings.

The last of the Merovingians, Childeric the Third, became the last king of his dynasty on the Frankish throne. He was replaced by Pepin the Short, so nicknamed for his small stature.

Carolingians and Capetians

Pepin came to power in the mid-8th century, and founded a new dynasty in France. It was called Carolingian, but not on behalf of Pepin the Short, but his son, Charlemagne. Pepin went down in history as a skillful manager who, before his coronation, was the mayor of Childeric the Third. Pepin actually ruled the life of the kingdom and determined the directions of the kingdom's foreign and domestic policies. Pepin also became famous as a skilled warrior, strategist, brilliant and cunning politician, who during his 17-year reign enjoyed the constant support of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Such cooperation of the ruling house of the Franks ended with the head of the Roman Catholic Church prohibiting the French from choosing representatives of other dynasties to the royal throne. So he supported the Carolingian dynasty and kingdom.

The heyday of France began under Pepin’s son, Charles, who spent most of his life in military campaigns. As a result, the territory of the state increased several times. In 800 Charlemagne became emperor. He was elevated to a new position by the Pope, who put the crown on the head of Charles, whose reforms and skillful leadership brought France to the TOP of the leading medieval states. Under Charles, the centralization of the kingdom was laid and the principle of succession to the throne was defined. The next king was Louis the First the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, who successfully continued the policies of his great father.

Representatives of the Carolingian dynasty were unable to maintain a centralized unified state, therefore in the 11th century. Charlemagne's state fell apart into separate parts. The last king of the Carolingian family was Louis the Fifth; when he died, Abbot Hugo Capet ascended the throne. The nickname appeared due to the fact that he always wore a mouth guard, i.e. the mantle of a secular priest, which emphasized his ecclesiastical rank after ascending to the throne as king. The reign of representatives of the Capetian dynasty is characterized by:

Development of feudal relations.
The emergence of new classes of French society - lords, feudal lords, vassals, dependent peasants. Vassals were in the service of lords and feudal lords, who were obliged to protect their subjects. The latter paid them not only through military service, but also tribute in the form of food and cash rent.
There were constant religious wars, which coincided with the period of the Crusades in Europe, which began in 1195.
The Capetians and many French were participants in the Crusades, participating in the defense and liberation of the Holy Sepulcher.

The Capetians ruled until 1328, bringing France to a new level of development. But the heirs of Hugo Capet failed to stay in power. The Middle Ages dictated its own rules, and a stronger and more cunning politician, whose name was Philip VI from the Valois dynasty, soon came to power.

The influence of humanism and the Renaissance on the development of the kingdom

During the 16th-19th centuries. France was ruled first by the Valois and then by the Bourbons, who belonged to one of the branches of the Capetian dynasty. The Valois also belonged to this family and were in power until the end of the 16th century. After them the throne until the mid-19th century. belonged to the Bourbons. The first king of this dynasty on the French throne was Henry the Fourth, and the last was Louis Philippe, who was expelled from France during the period of change from monarchy to republic.

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, the country was ruled by Francis the First, under whom France completely emerged from the Middle Ages. His reign is characterized by:

He made two trips to Italy to present the kingdom's claims to Milan and Naples. The first campaign was successful and France gained control of these Italian duchies for some time, but the second campaign was unsuccessful. And Francis the First lost territories on the Apennine Peninsula.
Introduced a royal loan, which in 300 years would lead to the collapse of the monarchy and the crisis of the kingdom, which no one could overcome.
Constantly fought with Charles the Fifth, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
France's rival was also England, which at that time was ruled by Henry the Eighth.

Under this king of France, art, literature, architecture, science and Christianity entered a new period of development. This happened mainly due to the influence of Italian humanism.

Humanism was of particular importance for architecture, which is clearly visible in the castles built in the Loire River valley. The castles that were built in this part of the country to protect the kingdom began to turn into luxurious palaces. They were decorated with rich stucco, decor, and the interior was changed, which was distinguished by luxury.

Also, under Francis the First, book printing arose and began to develop, which had a huge influence on the formation of the French language, including the literary one.

Francis the First was replaced on the throne by his son Henry the Second, who became the ruler of the kingdom in 1547. The policy of the new king was remembered by his contemporaries for his successful military campaigns, including against England. One of the battles, which is written about in all history textbooks dedicated to France in the 16th century, took place near Calais. No less famous are the battles of the British and French at Verdun, Toul, Metz, which Henry recaptured from the Holy Roman Empire.

Henry was married to Catherine de Medici, who belonged to the famous Italian family of bankers. The Queen ruled the country with her three sons on the throne:

Francis II.
Charles the Ninth.
Henry the Third.

Francis reigned for only a year and then died of illness. He was succeeded by Charles the Ninth, who was ten years old at the time of his coronation. He was completely controlled by his mother, Catherine de Medici. Karl was remembered as a zealous champion of Catholicism. He constantly persecuted Protestants, who became known as Huguenots.

On the night of August 23-24, 1572, Charles the Ninth gave the order to purge all Huguenots in France. This event was called St. Bartholomew's Night, since the murders took place on the eve of St. Bartholomew. Two years after the massacre, Charles died and Henry III became king. His opponent for the throne was Henry of Navarre, but he was not chosen because he was a Huguenot, which did not suit most of the nobles and nobility.

France in the 17th-19th centuries.

These centuries were very turbulent for the kingdom. The main events include:

In 1598, the Edict of Nantes, which was issued by Henry the Fourth, ended the religious wars in France. Huguenots became full members of French society.
France took an active part in the first international conflict - the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1638.
The kingdom experienced its "golden age" in the 17th century. under the reign of Louis the Thirteenth and Louis the Fourteenth, as well as the “gray” cardinals – Richelieu and Mazarin.
The nobles constantly fought with the royal power to expand their rights.
France 17th century constantly faced dynastic strife and internecine wars, which undermined the state from within.
Louis the Fourteenth dragged the state into the War of the Spanish Succession, which caused the invasion of foreign countries into French territory.
Kings Louis the Fourteenth and his great-grandson Louis the Fifteenth devoted enormous influence to the creation of a strong army, which made it possible to conduct successful military campaigns against Spain, Prussia and Austria.
At the end of the 18th century, the Great French Revolution began in France, which caused the liquidation of the monarchy and the establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon declared France an empire.
In the 1830s. An attempt was made to restore the monarchy, which lasted until 1848.

In 1848, a revolution called the Spring of Nations broke out in France, as in other countries of Western and Central Europe. The consequence of the revolutionary 19th century was the establishment of the Second Republic in France, which lasted until 1852.

Second half of the 19th century. was no less exciting than the first. The Republic was overthrown, replaced by the dictatorship of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled until 1870.

The Empire was replaced by the Paris Commune, which brought about the establishment of the Third Republic. It existed until 1940. At the end of the 19th century. The country's leadership pursued an active foreign policy, creating new colonies in different regions of the world:

North Africa.
Madagascar.
Equatorial Africa.
West Africa.

During the 80s - 90s. 19th centuries France constantly competed with Germany. Contradictions between states deepened and aggravated, which caused the separation of countries from each other. France found allies in England and Russia, which contributed to the formation of the Entente.

Features of development in the 20-21st centuries.

The First World War, which began in 1914, became a chance for France to regain lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, was forced to give this region back to the republic, as a result of which the borders and territory of France acquired modern contours.

During the interwar period, the country actively participated in the Paris Conference and fought for spheres of influence in Europe. Therefore, she actively took part in the actions of the Entente countries. In particular, together with Britain, it sent its ships to Ukraine in 1918 to fight against the Austrians and Germans, who were helping the government of the Ukrainian People's Republic drive the Bolsheviks out of its territory.

With the participation of France, peace treaties were signed with Bulgaria and Romania, which supported Germany in the First World War.

In the mid-1920s. Diplomatic relations were established with the Soviet Union, and a non-aggression pact was signed with the leadership of this country. Fearing the strengthening of the fascist regime in Europe and the activation of far-right organizations in the republic, France tried to create military-political alliances with European states. But France was not saved from the German attack in May 1940. Within a few weeks, Wehrmacht troops captured and occupied all of France, establishing a pro-fascist Vichy regime in the republic.

The country was liberated in 1944 by the forces of the Resistance Movement, the underground movement, and the allied armies of the United States and Britain.

The Second War hit the political, social and economic life of France hard. The Marshall Plan and the country's participation in economic European integration processes, which in the early 1950s, helped to overcome the crisis. unfolded in Europe. In the mid-1950s. France abandoned its colonial possessions in Africa, granting independence to the former colonies.

Political and economic life stabilized during the presidency of Charles de Gaulle, who led France in 1958. Under him, the Fifth Republic of France was proclaimed. De Gaulle made the country a leader on the European continent. Progressive laws were adopted that changed the social life of the republic. In particular, women received the right to vote, study, choose professions, and create their own organizations and movements.

In 1965, the country elected its head of state for the first time by universal suffrage. President de Gaulle, who remained in power until 1969. After him, the presidents in France were:

Georges Pompidou – 1969-1974
Valeria d'Estaing 1974-1981
Francois Mitterrand 1981-1995
Jacques Chirac – 1995-2007
Nicolas Sarkozy - 2007-2012
Francois Hollande – 2012-2017
Emmanuel Macron – 2017 – until now.

After World War II, France developed active cooperation with Germany, becoming with it the locomotives of the EU and NATO. The government of the country since the mid-1950s. develops bilateral relations with the USA, Britain, Russia, countries of the Middle East, Asia. The French leadership provides support to former colonies in Africa.

Modern France is an actively developing European country, which is a participant in many European, international and regional organizations and influences the formation of the world market. There are internal problems in the country, but the well-thought-out successful policy of the government and the new leader of the republic, Macron, is helping to develop new methods of combating terrorism, the economic crisis, and the problem of Syrian refugees. France is developing in accordance with global trends, changing social and legal legislation so that both the French and migrants feel comfortable living in France.

Description of the presentation France in the mid-19th century PART 1: by slides

Louis XVIII These words expressed the main task of the Bourbon monarchy - to find a compromise between the old orders that developed during the revolution and the First Empire. Create a new France. Lesson questions: Industrial revolution in France. Bourbon rule. July Monarchy. The crisis of the July monarchy. He again became the French king after Napoleon's second abdication.

By the first decades of the 19th century, craft workshops and manufactories were increasingly replaced by factories and factories. This process was especially fast in the cotton industry. From 1815 to 1830, cotton consumption tripled. During the same time, pig iron production doubled. Coal production also doubled. By 1825, about a third of the metal in France was smelted using coal. Paris became an important center of light industry. The number of steam engines in the country grew. In 1815 there were about 150 of them. By 1830 there were more than 700. True, in the same year there were more than 25 thousand steam engines in Great Britain.

France was noticeably behind England. The Industrial Revolution was delayed here. Many small workshops remained in the country. To some extent, this is explained by the fact that France has long been a center for the production of luxury goods (expensive fabrics, jewelry, perfumes, furniture). These products were made to order by professional craftsmen. Machines could not replace their labor. In Paris alone at the beginning of the 19th century there were 40 thousand such artisans out of a total population of half a million.

On the other hand, France had a narrow domestic market. About 75% of the French were employed in agriculture. Peasants who owned small plots of land could not afford, and often did not need, industrial goods. This had a negative impact on the pace of the industrial revolution. With the development of industry, the number of hired workers also grew. Their ranks were replenished by bankrupt artisans and peasants who had lost their land. However, finding work was not so easy. Entrepreneurs preferred to use cheap female and child labor.

For a long time, agriculture played a leading role in the French economy. In the first decades of the 19th century, changes took place here, as in industry. Potatoes, sugar beets, and industrial crops are widely planted. Large-scale commercial farming (in which products were sold for sale) was increasingly developing. Along with this comes the ruin of small farms (farmers suffered from taxes and moneylenders). Landless peasants became farm laborers or went to the cities to look for work. True, not everyone was lucky, and then former peasants joined the ranks of the unemployed and the poor.

After the Battle of Waterloo and Napoleon's abdication, the crown of France returned to the Bourboos. King Louis XVIII returned to Paris. Before this, he promised to honor the constitution (the Charter of 1814, liberal for that time).

Many emigrant nobles returned to France with the king. They wanted to revive the “former liberties” and sought the return of their lands and payment of compensation. They demanded the abolition of the Haartia of 1814. These people took important positions in the government and unleashed the "white terror". “White Terror” are government measures (arrests, executions, exiles, dismissals) directed against supporters of Napoleon I, who contributed to his return to power during the “Hundred Days”.

The Terror was called "white" because the supporters of such measures remained loyal to the white banner of the Bourbons. 70 thousand people became victims of terror in France. Many officers who supported Napoleon, including Marshal Ney, were shot.

However, the royalists who regained power did not understand that during the years of their absence the situation in the country had changed. And there was no way to return to the old order. It was obvious. Therefore, the winners at the Congress of Vienna obliged Louis XVIII to adopt a constitution and not encroach on the order that had developed during the period of revolution and empire. Even Louis XVIII understood that it was impossible to restore the pre-revolutionary order. However, he also could not go against the nobility, the support of royal power. However, growing dissatisfaction with the terror forced the king to dissolve the government. And call new elections in which moderate forces won.

Later, on this occasion, Louis XVIII said: “If these gentlemen were given freedom, in the end I myself would be purged.” Louis XVIII compromised with the representatives of the new France. It was as follows: the king rules by God's grace, by the right that France was ruled by his ancestors. His authority is sacred and cannot be questioned. But he gives his subjects a constitution that limits royal power. Louis XVIII recognized the most important gains of the times of the revolution and empire: the equality of all subjects before the law; the right of new owners to property.

The Charter of 1814 established a constitutional monarchy in France, a regime in which the king's power was limited to representative bodies. Executive power remained in the hands of the king. The judiciary remained relatively independent. However, the king was declared the source of justice. Legislative power was shared between the monarch and the bicameral parliament. The upper house (house of peers) was appointed by the king. There could be any number of peers. This title was for life. Persons over 30 years of age had the right to vote in the chamber. The Lower House (Chamber of Deputies) was elected by the population of France.

According to the law of 1820, there were 430 deputies. The term of office of each of them was 5 years. Men who had reached 30 years of age and paid 300 francs in taxes (a very impressive amount) could vote. It should be noted that under Napoleon there were about 5 million voters. Then under the Bourbons there were about 80–110 thousand of them out of the total thirty million population of France. Only about 18 thousand Frenchmen received the right to be elected - men who had reached 40 years of age and paid at least 1000 francs in taxes. The dominant position in the country was occupied by large landowners and the top of the bourgeoisie.

After many years of revolutionary upheavals and the dictatorship of Napoleon, France, in its political structure, approached the advanced countries of that time - Great Britain and the USA. The opportunity for a peaceful (evolutionary) development path has opened up for the country. In 1818, the law “On parliamentary control over the budget” was adopted. In 1819 – the liberal law “On the Press”. He abolished censorship.

Much of the success of Louis XVIII's reign was due to the successful choice of ministers. A particularly striking personality was the Duke of Armaiu n-Emmanue de Richelieu. Almost all liberal reforms of the first years of the Restoration are associated with his name. It is interesting that during the years of emigration the Duke was in the service of Russia and held the position of Governor-General of the New Russia. Through his efforts, Odessa turned into a major trading port.

After the death of the childless Louis XVIII in 1824, the crown of France went to his younger brother, the Comte d'Artois. He was crowned under the name Charles. X.

Charles X believed that it was possible to calm society not by providing new freedoms, but, on the contrary, by taking away these freedoms. Every year the king returned more and more to the regime of the “Old Order”. By his actions, he infringed on the interests of not only ordinary citizens, but also the ruling elite. On his orders, 250 Napoleonic generals were dismissed from the army. The Bill “On a Billion for Emigrants” provided for compensation for property lost during the revolution. The Paris National Guard was disbanded. Charles X's actions led to a political crisis.

Some conservatives joined the liberals who were in opposition. Twice (in 1827 and 1830) the opposition won elections to the Chamber of Deputies. In addition, the political crisis was intensified by economic turmoil. Unemployment and poverty grew in France. Wanting to deal with those who disagreed, in July 1830 the king decided on a coup d'etat. He signed decrees that violated the 1814 Charter. The Chamber of Deputies was dissolved. Suffrage was granted only to large landowners. Freedom of the press was abolished.

The shortsightedness of Charles X led to the outbreak of the July Revolution. On July 27, clashes between Parisians and the police began. And on July 29, the rebels took the royal Tuileries Palace in battle. In history, these events were called “Three Glorious Days.”

The revolution has won. On August 2, 1830, Charles X abdicated the throne and fled to England. The assembled Chamber of Deputies formed the Provisional Government. It was led by banker Jacques Laffitte and General Gilbert Lafayette.

The Chamber of Deputies decided to transfer the crown to the representative of the younger branch of the Bourbons - Louis-Philippe of Orléai. Liberals considered him capable of the compromise begun by Louis XVIII. On August 9 he became king of the French. Louis Philippe. I. Under him, the liberal opposition came to power.

Governance of the country passed into the hands of the richest part of the bourgeoisie. These people were often called the financial aristocracy. Its representatives were influential bankers and stockbrokers, owners of coal mines, mines, and large landowners. It is no coincidence that Louis Philippe himself was called the “bourgeois king.” After all, he was a major financier. In the 1820s his fortune was approximately 8 million francs.

In August 1830, a new constitution for France, the Charter of 1830, was adopted. In essence, it was a more liberal Charter of 1814. The country's political structure has not changed, but property and age limits have been lowered. The number of voters grew, reaching approximately 250 thousand people. Freedom of speech was proclaimed without any restrictions. The National Guard was restored. The national tricolor of the river again became the flag of France.

Reign of Louis Philippe. I received the name “July Monarchy”. The changes made during this period to the political life of the country strengthened the parliamentary system of France. But it soon became clear that the July Monarchy marked the beginning of new civil strife. The Industrial Revolution was accompanied by increased poverty among the population. The working day in French factories continued to last 12–16 hours. Many workers lived in slums.

The 30s and 40s of the 19th century were especially difficult. At this time, poverty among wage earners became appalling. The workers' demands for higher wages and permission for freedom of assembly remained unanswered. The state, ruled by the bourgeoisie, did not pay attention to this. All this led to the growth of revolutionary ideas.

Lyon was the largest center of the textile industry in France. The second largest city in the country. In 1831, Lyon manufacturers refused to increase the wages of weavers. And fulfill previous agreements. They explained this by increased competition. In November of the same year, an uprising began in the city. The slogan of the rebels was the words: “Live working, or die fighting!” “After a three-day struggle, the rebels captured the city. 20 thousand soldiers were sent to quell the unrest in Lyon. The army entered the city without encountering resistance.

But during the proceedings, the judges became confused. The details of such a need among weavers became clear that the defendants were acquitted. In April 1834, the Lyon weavers rose up to fight again. They demanded not only work, but also the establishment of a republic. This time the authorities did not make concessions. The fighting lasted 6 days. The army, using artillery, suppressed the uprising.

The unpopularity of the July Monarchy contributed to the strengthening of the republican movement. Republican secret societies began to emerge in the country. One of them was the “Society of the Seasons” formed in 1837. Among its leaders was Augustus St. Blanqui, who advocated a violent seizure of power. He believed that the uprising should be prepared by a small group of revolutionaries. In 1839, a group of conspirators under his leadership tried to seize power in Paris. But the uprising failed. Blanqui was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Despite all the troubles, in the 40s. In the 19th century, the French economy continued to develop. The number of steam engines in the country grew. Coal mining and iron production increased. Cotton consumption. The factory type of production established itself in metallurgy and was introduced into mechanical engineering. Railway construction developed.

By the middle of the 19th century, France ranked second in the world in terms of industrial output after Great Britain. But the growing industrial bourgeoisie was dissatisfied (real power was in the hands of bankers and stockbrokers). At the same time, the old anti-worker laws continued to apply in industry. They prohibited strikes and the formation of trade unions.

In addition, to maintain order in the country, Louis Philippe I strengthened repressive laws. In response to demands to lower the property qualification for participation in elections, Minister François Guizoi responded to the people: “Get rich, and you will become voters!” »

Let's summarize: In the 40s of the 19th century, France returned to almost the worst times of the Restoration. All this undermined the regime of the July Monarchy. Thus, in the 20s–40s. In the 19th century, industry developed rapidly in France. In 1830, the July Monarchy was established in the country. The political structure of the July Monarchy ensured the dominance of the large financial aristocracy in society. By the end of the 1840s, signs of a political crisis were clearly visible in France.

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France (France) is the largest, along with England, Germany (since 1870), Austria (since 1867 Austria-Hungary), state in Western Europe.

The history of France in the 19th century developed under the strong influence of the French Revolution of 1789-1799. During the century, the country experienced three more revolutions (1830, 1848, 1870) and a number of deep socio-political upheavals; the form of government changed several times.

As a result of the coup on September 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire of the VIII Revolution), carried out by General Bonaparte, the Consulate regime was established in France, which drew a line under the 10-year revolutionary period.

The regime, which relied on the army, bureaucracy, police and church, was built on the principle of strict administrative centralism, which abolished local and regional self-government. In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte (one of the three consuls) was proclaimed First Consul for life. In 1804 he declared himself emperor (Napoleon I). The regime of the First Empire (1804-1814) was established in France. Revolutionary legislation was replaced by new legislation. In 1804-1811 The Civil Code (Napoleonic Code), Commercial and Criminal Codes are adopted, legally enshrining the redistribution of property in favor of the bourgeoisie and peasantry that occurred during the years of the revolution. As a result of the policy of protectionism and government subsidies to industry, the French economy received significant development.

The foreign policy of the First Empire was characterized by the struggle to establish French hegemony in Europe, on the seas and in the colonies, which was accompanied by continuous Napoleonic wars, which undermined the French economy and brought huge human losses to the country (from 650 thousand to 1 million people). The power of Napoleonic France was undermined by Russia during the Patriotic War of 1812, which in 1814 led to the collapse of the First Empire.

In 1814, with the support of the victorious powers (Russia, England, Austria and Prussia), the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France (Restoration regime, 1814-1815, 1815-1830). On June 4, 1814, Louis XVIII, under pressure from the Russian Emperor Alexander I, signed a Constitutional Charter limiting royal power. The White Terror that began in the country and the intention to return to former monarchist emigrants the lands sold during the revolution (law of December 5, 1815) helped Napoleon in his attempt to restore his power, undertaken in March 1815 (“Hundred Days”). Napoleon's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815) against the forces of the 7th European Coalition returned the Bourbons to power (second Restoration).

Economic development of France

According to the Peace of Paris in 1815, France was returned to the borders of 1790. In the next 15 years, France recovered from the shocks of the revolution and the Napoleonic wars. The economic development of the country, which continued to remain predominantly agrarian, revived (72% of the French were employed in agriculture). At this time, the industrial revolution begins. Metallurgical production is growing. Since 1818, the smelting of cast iron and iron began on coal (and not on charcoal, as before). Cotton consumption increased from 10.3 million kg (1812) to 30-35 million (1829), the value of silk industry products increased from 40 million francs (1815) to 80 million (1830).

In foreign policy, the Restoration regime was guided by the line pursued in Europe by the Holy Alliance. Thus, in 1823, the French army took part in suppressing the revolution in Spain. In domestic politics, Louis XVIII sought to exercise caution, balancing between ultra-royalists (extreme monarchists), constitutional royalists and liberals. The accession to the throne of Charles X in 1824 was marked by a turn to open reaction - tightening of censorship, compensation (1 billion francs) to former emigrants for the lands confiscated from them during the revolution, the introduction of severe punishment for “crimes against religion,” etc. The offensive of the reaction was perceived in society as a gross violation of the Constitutional Charter of 1814 and provoked resistance from the liberal opposition, which in July 1830 managed to overthrow the semi-absolutist regime of the Restoration.

The weakness of the Republicans predetermined the preservation of the monarchy through the transfer of power from the senior branch of the Bourbons to the younger one, the Orléans. By a joint decision of the two chambers - deputies and peers - Duke Louis-Philippe d'Orléans was proclaimed "King of the French", who signed a new Constitutional Charter on August 9, 1830, which significantly expanded democratic freedoms.

During the years of the Consulate and the Empire, a lot of work was done to streamline legislation and develop legal norms for a new bourgeois society. From 1804 to 1811, 5 codes were developed and adopted, which together constituted the “Napoleonic Code”.

The history of the Empire is one of continuous wars of conquest, as a result of which almost all of Europe came under the rule of Napoleon. After Napoleon’s unsuccessful campaign in Russia in 1813, the “Battle of the Nations” took place near Leipzig, and on March 31, 1814, coalition troops entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba, from where he fled and in March 1815 came to power for the second time. The empire was restored, but only for 100 days. On June 18, 1815, the Battle of Waterloo took place, in which Napoleon suffered a final defeat, after which on June 22, a second abdication took place and exile to the island of St. Helena, where Napoleon Bonaparte died on May 5, 1821.

After Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo, Louis XVIII regained the throne. Repressions were carried out against the Bonapartists, but the main provisions of the Charter were respected. The influence of the bourgeoisie was growing in the country, but power was in the hands of the old feudal aristocracy, although their property was already bourgeois in nature. From the beginning of the 1820s. The influence on public policy of the most reactionary part of the nobles and clergy, who did not want to adapt to new conditions and were thinking about returning to the old order, increased. In 1824, after the death of Louis XVIII, his brother Count d'Artois (Charles X), the leader of ultra-reactionary circles, ascended the throne. Charles X began an openly pro-noble policy and destroyed the balance between the top of the bourgeoisie and the nobility. As a result, there was an increase in public discontent, which resulted in into a new revolution.

Revolution of 1848 and the Second Republic.

On February 23, 1848, a protest demonstration took place in Paris, which resulted in a clash with troops. This caused an uprising and storming of the royal palace; Louis Philippe was forced to abdicate the throne and fled the country. A Provisional Government was created, which carried out a number of measures, including: the release of political prisoners, the dissolution of parliament, the abolition of titles of nobility, the introduction of universal suffrage for men from 21 years of age, the abolition of slavery in the French colonies, the abolition of the cash deposit for the press, the reduction of the working day ( until 10 o'clock in Paris), etc. The main task of the Provisional Government was to prepare elections for the Constituent Assembly, which opened on May 4 and adopted the Constitution of the Second Republic (1848) on November 4.

The preamble defined political and civil liberties, talked about the right to work, free initial training, vocational education, emphasized equality between employers and workers, and stated the prohibition of arbitrary imprisonment, exclusive courts, the death penalty, and censorship. The basic principles of the state system were proclaimed to be a republican form of government, separation of powers and representative government. Legislative power was entrusted to a unicameral Legislative Assembly (of 750 people), elected for 3 years on the basis of universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. The development of bills and supervision of legislation was carried out by the State Council, elected by parliament for 6 years. Executive power was entrusted to the president, elected for 4 years, who was endowed with enormous power, including the right to appoint and dismiss ministers, sign treaties, the right to pardon, command troops, direct foreign policy, etc. The main flaw of the 1848 Constitution was the lack of constitutional mechanisms to ensure the balance of powers.

As a result of the elections on December 10, 1848, Louis Bonaparte became president, who headed for a coup d'état. Gradually, all officials were replaced by Bonapartists at all levels of government. On December 2, 1851, the deputies were arrested and the Legislative Assembly was dissolved.