Significant ancient Russian cities and theories of their foundations. The most ancient cities of Rus'. Structure of an urban estate

Cities of Ancient Rus'

The origin of cities in Ancient Rus' dates back to the 9th-10th centuries. Their emergence was associated with the formation of class society and statehood, the beginning of the process of separation of crafts from agriculture and the involvement of ancient Russian lands in international trade. As in many countries of Europe and Asia, cities in Rus' arose from tribal centers, developed around the castles of feudal lords or the walls of monasteries, were formed by the merger of several nearby villages, grew out of sentry fortresses, or were founded as outposts - strongholds - in lands with non-Slavic population.

Early medieval Russian cities, as a rule, performed several social functions at once: administrative (they were centers of political power for the rural districts), military (behind their fortified walls, the surrounding population sought salvation in the event of an enemy invasion), economic (it was the city that became the place where artisans willingly settled and merchants, where monetary and material resources were concentrated), religious and educational (they were centers of spiritual and cultural life). The stability and longevity of the city were determined primarily by the intensity and strength of its ties with the rural area. Its main difference from the village is that the population primarily engages in trade and craft. According to chronicles and archaeological excavations, in the 10th century. There were 25 cities in Rus' by the middle of the 13th century. - about 300.

However, the Mongol invasion was a disaster for the fate of Russian cities. Most of them were destroyed, while many were never restored, while others eked out a miserable existence. The Horde yoke had even more tragic consequences for the social structure of the Russian city. It was at this time that the nature of the relationship between the prince and the townspeople changed. In the social structure of the cities of pre-Mongol Rus', the townspeople (merchants and artisans) played such an important role that it allowed some historians to come to the conclusion about the existence during this period of city-states that were close in their social nature to the policies of Ancient Greece. But as a result of the establishment of the Horde yoke, cities, with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov, became princely fiefdoms - the capitals of feudal principalities with relatively small settlements, or border fortresses with a small trade and craft population. Posad communities found themselves politically powerless in the face of growing princely power.

The revival of Russian cities dates back to the second half of the 14th century. It is associated with the beginning of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow and liberation from the dependence of the Golden Horde. However, weakened economically and politically, the cities were unable to resist the growing autocratic principles of the Moscow principality. Unlike the cities of Western Europe, Russian cities were not able to act as an independent force. At the height of the struggle between Ivan III and Novgorod, the Pskovites supported the Moscow Grand Duke. There was no unity among the Novgorodians either: some were ready to defend ancient liberties, others preferred to come under the “strong hand” of Moscow or Lithuania. As a result, 1478 marked the end of the Novgorod feudal republic. The oprichnina terror during the reign of Ivan the Terrible had disastrous consequences for the fate of the city, devastating the most developed urban centers, and in Novgorod several thousand people were exterminated during a monstrous punitive expedition.

The autocracy established an extremely limited framework for entrepreneurial activity, centralizing local merchant capital and introducing a state monopoly on all the most profitable industries. Strict legal regulation led in the middle of the 17th century. to the actual enslavement of the townspeople. In 1699, Peter I introduced townsman self-government in the cities: zemstvo huts (since 1721 magistrates) were established, subordinate to the central body - the mayor's chamber, which was soon renamed the town hall. This reform, designed to somewhat ease the legal position of the townspeople, contributed to the further formation of the class system, and also strengthened the status of cities. The reforms of Catherine II in 1775-1785 played a significant role in the history of the Russian city. The tasks of administrative management of the Russian Empire led to the fact that the number of cities increased sharply: 165 new ones were added to the 232 cities that existed previously (more than a quarter of them were unable to retain city status in the future). At the same time, the social status of urban citizenship (merchants, petty bourgeois, guild workers) was also increased. The legal protection of townspeople from the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy was more or less ensured.

The share of townspeople in the second half of the 18th century. accounted for 8-9% of the total population, and by the end of the century, in terms of this indicator, Russia was ahead of many European countries, second only to England and France. However, the bulk of small towns of that time differed little from villages in their appearance, infrastructure, and occupations of the population. In the 1760s 47% of the urban population were employed in the agricultural sector, in the 1790s - 45%, only in the 1850s this figure fell to 12%. The preservation of serfdom in the country and legal restrictions on rural migration hampered the demographic and socio-economic development of the city. Reforms of the 60-70s XIX century significantly changed the situation of the city and its citizens. The industrial boom and “proletarianization” led to the rapid erosion of the philistinism and to class formation on a new basis: in 1865-1879. The ranks of the industrial proletariat grew one and a half times and numbered about 1 million people. In accordance with the new social structure of society, transformations were also carried out in the sphere of city government. The Regulations on Cities of 1870 replaced the estate-based city government bodies with non-estate ones. The right to vote was granted to males who had reached the age of 25 and paid taxes and fees to the city. But in 1892, during the era of counter-reforms, the circle of voters was significantly limited and the control of the state bureaucracy over the activities of city government bodies was strengthened.

In 1897, 13.4% of the total population of the Russian Empire lived in cities. At the same time, only 16 cities had more than 50 thousand inhabitants: St. Petersburg, Moscow, Saratov, Kazan, Rostov-on-Don, Astrakhan, Tula, Nizhny Novgorod, Samara, Ekaterinodar, Tsaritsyn, Yekaterinburg, Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Tomsk, Novocherkassk , Irkutsk.

The expansion of the network of cities in Soviet times took place primarily on the basis of industrial production. Characteristic features of urbanization during the first five-year plans were the increasing role of large cities, the formation of satellite cities around the largest urban centers, the emergence of new cities in regions of the country rich in natural resources, and the rapid formation of capitals of national autonomies. From 1926 to 1939, the number of cities in Russia grew from 461 to 574. The Great Patriotic War, the restoration of the national economy, and a shift in the distribution of productive forces to the East and North led to the formation of new urban settlements. A distinctive feature of city-formation processes after the war was the creation of scientific centers near the largest cities (Dubna, Zvezdny, Novosibirsk Academic Town), as well as the emergence of closed cities that worked for the defense needs of the country. In 1959 there were 877 cities in Russia, in 1989 - 1037.

Starting from 1926, when the first population census was carried out in Soviet times, and until the beginning of the 90s. The urban population was replenished largely due to migration from the countryside. During these years, rural migrants made up 44% of the total number of city residents. In 1994, the share of the urban population in Russia was 74%. However, already in the 1980s. the rate of urbanization fell noticeably, and in the early 90s. in Moscow and St. Petersburg - the largest cities of Russia - there was even a slight decrease in population as a result of unfavorable socio-economic conditions and the onset of another demographic wave caused by the consequences of the Great Patriotic War.

What is the most ancient city in Rus'? This question is very common among scientists, since they still cannot come to a single answer. Moreover, even archaeologists with all the possibilities and prospects also cannot come to a specific solution. There are 3 most common versions that tell us which one is the most ancient in Rus'.

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Derbent is the oldest city in Russia

The most common version on the topic of the most ancient cities of Russia comes down to Derbent, which first became known thanks to the chronicles of the 8th century BC. Of course, there is no exact date, but there is one “but” in this version. At the time of the emergence of this city, neither Kievan Rus nor the Russian Empire existed.

Until recently, the settlement in question could not be called a city, and it was not part of Russia until the conquest of the Caucasus. Based on these statements, many doubts arise about whether Derbent is really the most ancient city in Rus'. It is worth noting that there are not so few supporters of this statement in our time.

If we talk about the ancient name of this city, it sounds like the Caspian Gate. Miletus Hecataeus (geographer of Ancient Greece) first remembers this city. During its development, the city was destroyed more than once, subjected to assault, and decline. But despite this, its history still has periods of real prosperity. Nowadays, you can see a large number of museums here. This city is a popular tourist destination.

The oldest Russian city is Veliky Novgorod

The next version is more ambitious, and it comes down to the city of Veliky Novgorod. Almost every native resident of this city is confident in this statement.
The founding date of Veliky Novgorod is 859. This city, which is washed by the Volkhov River, is the ancestor of Christianity in Rus'. A large number of architectural monuments, as well as the Kremlin itself, remember the long-time rulers of the state. Supporters of this version insist that the city of Novgorod was a city of Russia at all stages of its development. Another important factor is the question of calculating the specific age of this city.

Old Ladoga is a contender for the title of the most ancient city in Russia

Most historians who study the most ancient cities of Russia are inclined to the third version: the oldest city is Old Ladoga. Nowadays Ladoga has the status of a city, and the first mentions of it can be dated back to the middle of the 8th century. It is worth noting that on the territory of the city you can even see preserved tombstones, the founding date of which is 921.

http://doseliger.ru/

Already in the 9th-11th centuries, Ladoga was a port city where various ethnic cultures came into contact (these are Slavs, Finns and Scandinavians). On the site of the modern city, merchant caravans gathered and active trade took place. In the chronicles, Ladoga was first mentioned among the ten most ancient cities in Russia in 862.

It is worth noting that the President of Russia plans to nominate this city for the title of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. To achieve this, the President decided to conduct additional historical research in the vicinity of Ladoga. On the territory of the city, the oldest church has been preserved, where, according to scientists, the baptism of the descendants of Rurik, famous in the history of Rus', took place.

In other words, today the list of ancient cities in Russia is Veliky Novgorod, Stary Ladoga, Derbent. There will be a lot of debate around this issue until scientists find solid evidence in favor of one option or another.

Video: Derbent. The most ancient city in Rus'

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St. Petersburg State Academy of Veterinary Medicine

Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences and Humanities

Test on Russian history

Origin and development of cities of Ancient Rus'

Completed by: 1st year student

Ivanova Maria Petrovna

St. Petersburg 2016

Introduction

1. The emergence of cities in Ancient Rus'

2. Internal structure of cities

3. City self-government

3.1 Trade and craft

4. The role of cities in the economic, political and spiritual life of Rus'

4.1 Veliky Novgorod

4.2 Izborsk

4.4 Moscow

Bibliography

Introduction

The question of when the Slavs appeared on the territory where the Old Russian state later formed has not yet been resolved.

Some researchers think that the Slavs are the original population of this territory, others believe that non-Slavic tribes lived here, and the Slavs moved here much later, only in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. In any case, Slavic settlements of the 6th - 7th centuries on the territory of modern Ukraine are already well known. They are located in the southern part of the forest-steppe, almost on the border of the steppes. Apparently, the situation here at that time was calm and there was no need to fear enemy attacks - Slavic settlements were built unfortified.

Later, the situation changed dramatically: hostile nomadic tribes appeared in the steppes, and cities began to be built here.

The purpose of this work is to consider the cities of Ancient Rus' - their structure, management, life of citizens, as well as the influence of the location of cities on the occupation of the population, on their role in the history of Rus'.

Such an excursion will help us better understand the life of the ancient Slavs, their culture, the significance of historical events, and identify the role of ancient cities in the political, spiritual and cultural life of Rus'.

1 . The emergence of cities in Ancient Rus'

The Slavs, as a Central European agricultural people, had stable skills in agricultural production based on arable farming, and had, in comparison with local tribes, more developed forms of social organization of society. In addition, in the last centuries of the 1st millennium AD. The territory of Eastern Europe was crossed by two major trade and military routes of the Middle Ages - the Baltic-Volga route and the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. The first of them played a significant role in the history of the region.

The formation of the route between the Baltic and the East had a strong impact on the economy of the surrounding areas. Its centers began to play a decisive role as administrative-military, trade and craft centers of the territories.

The formation of state territory in the south and north of Rus', as well as the formation of cities as support centers of new social and economic relations and connections, undoubtedly, on the one hand, were subject to the general laws of development of East Slavic society, but, on the other hand, had many specific features. It is traditionally believed that a city is a product of its surroundings and cities arise in areas of greatest concentration of the rural population. This was the case with most of the cities of Southern Rus' in the Middle Dnieper region, where the emergence of the first cities was preceded by a certain period of stability in the development of Slavic society, which followed the resettlement of Slavic tribes from the more western and southwestern regions of Europe.

In Northern Rus', it was not the needs of the agricultural population that created the cities. The latter grew in key places of vast river systems that blocked the communications of vast territories. This location gave the city the ability to collect tribute from the population of large areas and control trade routes. This was long-distance trade, military-administrative control of river systems and crafts that served the highest social stratum of the cities themselves and trade routes.

The story of the beginning of the Russian land does not remember when these cities arose: Kyiv, Pereslavl, Chernigov, Smolensk, Lyubech, Novgorod, Rostov, Polotsk. At the moment from which she begins her story about Rus', most of these cities, if not all of them, apparently were already significant settlements. A quick glance at the geographical location of these cities is enough to see that they were created by the successes of Russian foreign trade. Most of them stretched out in a long chain along the main river route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” along the Dnieper-Volkhov line; only a few, Pereslavl on Trubezh, Chernigov on the Desna, Rostov in the Upper Volga region, moved east from this, so to speak, operational basis of Russian trade, as its eastern outposts, indicating its flank direction to the Azov and Caspian Seas. The emergence of these large trading cities was the completion of a complex economic process that began among the Slavs in their new places of residence.

The Eastern Slavs settled along the Dnieper and its tributaries in solitary fortified courtyards.

With the development of trade, prefabricated trading posts, places of industrial exchange, where trappers and beekeepers came together to trade, to visit, as they said in the old days, arose among these one-yard houses. Such collection points were called graveyards. Subsequently, with the adoption of Christianity, in these local rural markets, as usual human gatherings, Christian churches were first of all erected: then the graveyard received the meaning of the place where the rural parish church stands. Rural administrative divisions coincided with the parishes or were associated with them: this gave the churchyard the meaning of a rural volost.

Small rural markets were drawn to larger ones that arose along particularly busy trade routes. From these large markets, which served as intermediaries between native industrialists and foreign markets, our ancient trading cities grew along the Greco-Varangian trade route. These cities served as trading centers and main storage points for the industrial districts that formed around them.

2 . Internal structure of cities

By the beginning of the 9th century there were about 24 large cities in Rus'. The Varangians (Normans), who walked through this territory along the routes from the Varangians to the Greeks or from the Varangians to the Persians, called Rus' Gardarika - the country of Cities.

The word city in the Old Russian language meant a fortified settlement, in contrast to a village or village - an unfortified village. Therefore, any fortified place was called a city, both a city in the socio-economic meaning of the word, and a fortress itself or a feudal castle, a fortified boyar or princely estate. Everything that was surrounded by a fortress wall was considered a city. Moreover, until the 17th century, this word was often used to describe the defensive walls themselves.

In ancient Russian written sources, especially in chronicles, there are a huge number of references to the siege and defense of fortified points and the construction of fortifications - cities.

Therefore, they tried to build fortifications in such a way that the main part of them consisted of natural barriers.

The most suitable for this purpose were islands in the middle of a river or in a difficult swamp. A wooden fence or palisade was built along the edge of the site and that was all. Typical examples of such a system are some settlements in the Smolensk and Polotsk lands.

Where there were few swamps, but there was an abundance of hilly territory, fortified settlements were built on outlier hills. This technique was widespread in the northwestern regions of Rus'. The cape type of fortified settlement became the most common. For their construction, a cape was chosen, bounded by ravines or at the confluence of two rivers. The settlement turned out to be well protected by water or steep slopes on the sides, but had no natural protection on the floor side. This is where it was necessary to build artificial earthen obstacles - to tear off a ditch. This increased the labor costs for the construction of fortifications, but also provided enormous advantages: in almost any geographical conditions it was very easy to find a convenient place and select in advance the desired size of the territory to be fortified. In addition, the earth obtained by tearing off the ditch was usually poured along the edge of the site, thus creating an artificial earthen rampart, which made it even more difficult for the enemy to gain access to the settlement.

This is how the Eastern Slavs built their fortifications until the second half of the 10th century, when the ancient Russian early feudal state - Kievan Rus - finally emerged.

3 . City self-government

The territory of Russian cities of the 9th-10th centuries was mainly contained within the confines of small fortresses - Detinets; During this period, the formation of cities as centers of concentration of not only princely servants, but also merchants and artisans was just beginning to form. The first urban settlements were, in the full sense of the word, colonies of merchants and artisans, and urban institutions arose among the newcomer population, who came from all over, people alien to each other. The central fortified part of the most ancient Russian cities was called “detintsa”. The root of the word “detinets” leads to the term “children’s”, princely warrior. The inner castle got its name from the children's castles that made up its garrison, just as in later monastery estates the "Detin Palace" was called "Detin's Palace" after the children.

The oldest cities were subordinated to suburbs, the dependent position of which is reflected in the very name “suburb”. It is likely that the dependence of the suburbs on older cities was a consequence of colonization, the development of peripheral lands from the older city, which acted as a kind of metropolis. The main body of self-government of the oldest city community was the veche - the people's assembly of all free residents of the city. Residents of the suburbs had to obey the decisions of the veche of the main city community. Rural people from surrounding areas also gathered at the meeting in the main city. Delegates from the suburbs also arrived here. The powers of the veche were very broad; the “people” gathered at the veche decided on a wide variety of issues. In general, both at the veche and outside it, ancient Russian people, i.e. the democratic mass of the urban and rural population constituted an effective political force.

The people of Ancient Rus' took an active part both in inviting princes to reign and in removing them from the “table”. The prince was a necessary element of the socio-political structure of ancient Russian city-states. That is why the chroniclers recorded so carefully and with such anxiety all periods without a prince.

The Old Russian prince, being one of the most important links in the volost administration, lived in the main city of the land.

In his military affairs, he relied on his squad, the top layer of which were the boyars. The boyars, serving people under the prince, simultaneously occupied important positions in the administration of the city community and were paid to feed the volost. However, the backbone of the military power of each city volost was not the squad, but the “voi” - the volost militia, which included free citizens of the main city, suburbs and rural areas. The free population was entirely armed and collectively amounted to “a thousand,” which in turn consisted of hundreds of smaller territorial-administrative entities and, at the same time, military units.

The main city could not be imagined without a “region”, “volost”, i.e. without suburbs and villages. The city and the volost were in unity with each other, forming one territorial whole. This explains the names “Kiev volost”, “Chernigov volost”, “Smolensk volost”, etc.

These volosts - city-states had their own state borders: “limits”, “boundaries”, “borders”, often mentioned in the chronicle. The city was closely connected with the volost in economic, military-political, cultural and religious relations. The Christian Church was controlled by urban and rural communities not only in its lower, but also in its highest levels: even the highest church hierarchs were elected at the veche. The volosts, as separate state entities, due to their inherent sovereignty, “ruled” the embassies towards each other. In addition, the main city-states sent ambassadors to foreign countries.

It should be kept in mind that the relationship between cities and suburbs within the city-state system did not remain unchanged. Conflicts often arose between older cities and suburbs. Moreover, the suburbs' tendency towards isolation is noticeable. Often this led to the decomposition of the former volost-states into new smaller ones.

ancient city trade craft

3 .1 Trade and crafts

The emergence and development of cities was the most important factor in the socio-economic life of Ancient Rus', since they were centers of commodity production and exchange, no matter how limited this production and exchange may have been.

After the Tatar pogroms in a number of Russian cities (Moscow, Novgorod, Smolensk, Pskov, etc.), relatively intensive craft and trade activity can be noted. As for Russian cities before Mongol times, they were in no way inferior to Western European cities in terms of the level of development of crafts and trade, and in some respects even surpassed them.

Next to the detinets (small fortress), settlements of artisans and merchants grew, settling outside the castle walls. Two urban worlds were created: princely and free (trade and craft).

Vegetable gardens and orchards were an indispensable part of the townspeople's economy. In Kyiv, vegetable gardens surrounded the city and stretched from the Golden to the Lyadskie Gates. During military operations near Kiev in 1151, military men caused a lot of damage, including destroying vegetable gardens (“and they cut up all the vegetable gardens”). The area in front of the Golden Gate in Kyiv was defined in the 12th century as lying “in the vegetable gardens.” Garden seeds found during excavations of ancient Russian cities are not uncommon.

Livestock breeding was of great importance in the economy of the townspeople. Archaeological research has discovered bones of many domestic animals in cities, including horses, cows, pigs, sheep, etc.

Of course, the degree of importance of agriculture for urban residents was not the same in small and large cities. Agriculture dominated in small towns, was less developed in large centers (Kyiv, Novgorod, etc.), but existed everywhere in one form or another.

However, it was not agriculture that determined the economy of Russian cities in the 10th-13th centuries, but crafts and trade. The largest urban centers could no longer exist without constant communication with the nearest agricultural district. They consumed agricultural products to a greater extent than they produced them, being centers of crafts, trade and administration.

The “urban system” in Rus', as in Western Europe, was created in conditions of a subsistence economy with its isolation and weak exchange. And, nevertheless, the growth of Russian cities and the development of crafts and trade in them were of enormous economic importance, without studying which the high culture of Kievan Rus will remain incomprehensible to us.

Thus, the reasons for the emergence of ancient Russian cities were revealed - in Northern Rus' it was long-distance trade, military-administrative control of river systems and crafts that served the highest social stratum of the cities themselves and trade routes. Most of them stretched out in a long chain along the main river route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” russ city spiritual self-government

The people in Ancient Rus' took an active part both in inviting princes to reign and in removing them from the “table”.

The main city could not be imagined without a “region”, “volost”, i.e. without suburbs and villages.

The city was closely connected with the volost in economic, military-political, cultural and religious relations.

4 . The role of cities in the economic, political and spiritual life of Rus'

The formation of the Old Russian state was closely connected with the process of transformation, the development of the world of impenetrable thickets, swamps and endless steppes that surrounded man in Eastern Europe. The core of the new world was the city - a “humanized”, “cultivated” territory reclaimed from nature. Orderly, urbanized space turned into the support of a new social organization.

In cities, the individual’s preoccupation with his family disappears; his status does not dissolve in the status of the group to the same extent as in a barbarian society. Already in the early cities of Novgorod-Kievan Rus, society was experiencing a state of disintegration. People of the most diverse social status and ethnicity flock to the cities, under the shadow of princely power.

Solidarity and mutual assistance are an indispensable condition for survival in extreme conditions of famines, epidemics and enemy invasions. But socio-psychological integration processes occur under completely different conditions.

Cities, undoubtedly, were the centers of economic, political and spiritual life of Ancient Rus'.

It was the cities that protected Rus' from disastrous isolationism. They played a leading role in the development of political, economic and cultural ties with Byzantium and Danube Bulgaria, the Muslim countries of Western Asia, the Turkic nomads of the Black Sea steppes and the Volga Bulgars, and with the Catholic states of Western Europe.

In the urban environment, especially in the largest centers, heterogeneous cultural elements were assimilated, fused, processed and comprehended in their own way, which, in combination with local characteristics, gave the ancient Russian civilization a unique originality. Let's look at the cities that had the strongest influence on the history and culture of Rus'.

4 . 1 Velikiy Novgorod

Veliky Novgorod, one of the most ancient and famous Russian cities, was first mentioned in the Novgorod Chronicle in 859 in connection with the name of the legendary Prince Rurik, who began advancing to Rus' from Ladoga.

Already in the first centuries of its existence, Novgorod played an important role in the events that took place on Russian soil, in fact becoming the first capital of Rus'. The location of Novgorod was so advantageous geographically (the city stood at the crossroads of waterways coming from the Baltic from the north and west to the south and east) that by the middle of the 9th century it became a major commercial, political and cultural center of the northwestern lands. Novgorod did not remain the capital for long. In 882, Prince Oleg made a campaign against Kyiv and moved the capital there. But even after the transfer of the princely residence to Kyiv, Novgorod did not lose its significance. Being located in a zone of busy trade contacts with foreign countries, Novgorod was a kind of “window to Europe”. Under Prince Vladimir, the son of Yaroslav the Wise, large stone construction began in the city. The St. Sophia Cathedral was erected, which became not only the main temple of the entire Novgorod land, but also a political symbol.

By the 12th century, Novgorod became the center of a vast territory stretching from the Arctic Ocean to Torzhok. The large tribute received from the subject territories was one of the sources of Novgorod's wealth.

The Novgorod Republic was not formed immediately; it finally took shape by the middle of the 13th century. Since the second half of the 14th century, the city calls itself Veliky Novgorod. Until the end of the 15th century, Novgorod remained the political, commercial and religious center of the territory subordinate to it. Residents were engaged in the cultivation of grain crops and flax, animal husbandry, and gardening. Hunting, fishing and beekeeping (collecting wild honey) occupied a significant place in the economy. Crafts in Novgorod had a narrow specialization with a predominance of metalworking and the use of complex technological techniques. A special industry was the production of weapons. In addition, jewelry, woodworking, ceramics, weaving and leather dressing flourished in Novgorod.

Trade was of great importance for the development of the city. In terms of the quantity and variety of imported and exported goods, Novgorod, perhaps, occupied first place among Russian cities.

In 1478, under Ivan III, Novgorod became part of the unified Russian state.

4 .2 Izborsk

The chronicler reports: “There was no Pskov yet, but there was in that land the first city called Izborsk.”

Archaeological excavations carried out under the leadership of the Soviet archaeologist Valentin Vasilyevich Sedov in Izborsk revealed ancient dwellings, workshops, outbuildings, and the remains of powerful fortifications. Residents of Izborsk smelted metals from swamp ore, made weapons, tools, jewelry, and engaged in weaving, bone carving and woodworking crafts. Important industries were agriculture, hunting and fishing. The houses here were cut from thick logs, placing the buildings directly on the surface of the earth. They had wooden floors.

Already by the 9th century, the first fortifications were built in Izborsk - the settlement was surrounded by a ring of a high rampart. Behind it there were dwellings in two or even three rows. The central square of the settlement was used for meetings, pagan ceremonies, and trade. Here they mourned the dead, held court, made important decisions, and made sacrifices. From here they went on campaigns, and returned here - with the joy of victories or the bitterness of defeats. No.

4 .3 Kyiv

In general, Ancient Kyiv (c. 10th century) is depicted as a city with handicraft production and trade, but hardly with a significant artisan population. Kyiv stood on the most important trade routes “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” to Constantinople, to Asia, to the Don, to Novgorod, and thereby attracted the attention of the princes who settled in the north. Already in the initial period of its existence - Kievan Rus - Kyiv occupied a significant territory. Like most Slavic cities, it was fortified with an earthen rampart with wooden walls and surrounded by a deep moat.

In the middle of the 12th century, Rus' entered a period of political fragmentation, and the importance of Kyiv fell somewhat, but it still attracted the attention of Russian princes, who tirelessly fought for its possession.

At the end of the 12th century, Kyiv lost its significance as the political center of ancient Rus' and became the center of the Kyiv appanage principality. At the same time, it remained one of the centers of Russian culture: public schools existed here, books were copied and libraries were compiled, chronicles were written and works of spiritual and secular literature were created. Painting, applied and jewelry arts have reached the highest level.

The year 1240 was fatal for Kyiv: in December, the hordes of Batu Khan approached its walls, and after a heroic defense, which, according to the chronicler, lasted ten weeks and four days, the city was captured and destroyed, most of its inhabitants died. With the departure of the Mongol-Tatars, life in the city began to gradually revive, and after five or six years Kyiv had a considerable population. The economy and international trade were improving. Kyiv was visited by merchants from Poland, Germany and other countries.

4 .4 Moscow

This city was first mentioned in the Ipatiev Chronicle in 1147, although, of course, the city arose earlier than the chronicle mention. Moscow was located in a populated area, on the banks of a river that was a water trade route.

At the end of the 11th century, Moscow was a small town with a fortified center on Borovitsky Hill and a craft and trading area. At the turn of the 12th - 13th centuries it was already a significant city in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'.

The city did not escape the Mongol-Tatar invasion: like most cities of Rus', Moscow was captured and burned by the troops of Batu Khan. The city managed to recover from the Horde defeat quite quickly. This was helped by its location at the intersection of trade roads.

In the first half of the 13th century, Moscow became the center of an independent appanage principality. The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich, who reigned peacefully in Moscow for 33 years.

At the beginning of the 14th century, the Moscow principality significantly increased its territory by annexing Pereyaslavl.

Moscow established its dominant position in the Russian lands during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy. In the 15th century, during the reign of Ivan III, the process of unification of Russian lands was almost completed. Instead of scattered principalities, a single Russian state was formed. Moscow turned into the capital of a huge power. Each ruler, grand duke, tsar or emperor, introduced something new into the appearance of Moscow. Under Ivan IV, the Intercession Cathedral, better known as St. Basil's Cathedral, was erected on Red Square. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the first Russian printing house began operating in Moscow.

The emergence of cities in Rus' influenced political, economic and spiritual life.

In cities, the individual’s preoccupation with his family disappears; his status does not dissolve in the status of the group to the same extent as in a barbarian society. Under the shadow of princely power, people of the most diverse social status and ethnicity flock here.

Cities began to play a leading role in the development of political, economic and cultural ties with Byzantium and Danube Bulgaria, the Muslim countries of Western Asia, the Turkic nomads of the Black Sea steppes and the Volga Bulgars, and with the Catholic states of Western Europe.

A number of large cities had a huge impact on the history of Rus', such as: Novgorod, Kyiv, Moscow. In these cities, the Russian state was born, a national culture was formed, and trade and political ties with other states were strengthened.

Conclusion

The individuality of a city center is determined by many factors, including the predominant role of one or another of its functions and the variety of their combinations.

Among them, the following stand out: political, administrative and legal (cities are the focus of power structures); military (the importance of fortified cities is especially important, their strategic role in the southern forest-steppe borderland, where “quick to bloodshed” nomads appeared); cultural, including both religious and secular principles; handicraft; trading; communication (located on the main routes of communication, the cities maintain international connections, which leads to the mutual enrichment of cultures - they carry out contacts between individual territories of Kievan Rus, and later - princely lands).

Each urban settlement had specific features and had its own unique face: the “elder” cities, the capitals of the princely lands, differed in scale from the specific ones. Cities differed in fortification systems, the number and density of population, and the predominance of certain classes in social stratification. However, all of the listed features, presented in different combinations, unlike rural settlements, are characteristic of cities.

It can be assumed that, like Russian peasants of the 18th-19th centuries, the life of townspeople was regulated by a system of norms of behavior, with the private sphere of activity embodied in the home, in the family as a small social community, and publicity in the “street”, in veche meetings, participation in political conflicts, military and construction enterprises. A new system of personal connections was being formed in the city; Perhaps neighborly help - help - manifested itself in different forms. During sowing, harvesting, and mowing, members of the “city community” helped widows and orphans, built huts for fire victims, and “peacefully” built houses for those in need of support.

So, in cities the preoccupation of the individual with his clan disappears; his status does not dissolve in the status of the group to the same extent as in a barbarian society.

The city as a historical cultural phenomenon, as an integral system with qualitatively new properties compared to previous settlements, emerges at a new stage in the development of East Slavic society. The complex process of urbanization is compressed in time; it is more revolutionary than evolutionary. The emergence of ancient Russian cities in all the diversity of their functions is a leap, an explosion that is not recognized by supporters of the theory of continuity. On the contrary, all systems of an agrarian archaic society develop at a slow pace.

Only around the middle of the 10th century, but closer to its end, together with the strengthening of the Old Russian state and the adoption of the Christian religion under Vladimir Svyatoslavich (paganism in Rus' did not know urban civilization), conditions were created for the creation of types of settlements capable of performing new tasks - administrative, cultural and military. It was not so much economic factors as the desire of society to avoid disastrous disintegration, the search for previously unknown forms of solidarity and cooperation forced human groups to unite under the protection of city walls. If we can’t talk about developed cities within the framework of the late tribal (military-democratic) system, then the 10th century. became a transitional period.

In the creation of early state formations, along with cities and fortresses, the role of the military aristocracy turned out to be decisive: princes founded cities, and during their reconstruction they led designers and “city builders”. “And Volodimer said: “This is not good, even if there is a small city near Kiev.” And he began to build cities along the Desna, and along Vostri, and along Trubezhevi, and along Sula, and along Stugna. Krivich, and from Chudi, and from Vyatichi. and from these cities were inhabited; fight from the Pechenegs" (PVL, 988). We are talking here about military mercenaries of different ethnic origins, and not about a violent action.

The founding of many cities, strategically important as centers of administration of the volost territory, took place in a planned manner, as the Slavs colonized new lands. Many cities at the beginning of their history, when peripheral areas were being developed, were sovereign communities of yesterday’s brave pioneer colonists, people from different East Slavic regions, both from older cities and villages. This is, for example, Ryazan. This is confirmed archaeologically: by the homogeneous composition of the population. The supreme power in the city, along with representatives of the princely administration, could be exercised by the veche with the “best men” chosen by it.

Cities served as refuges for the population of nearby villages. In case of a military threat, peasants took refuge behind their walls. That is why the construction of fortifications, grandiose in scale, was seen as a great common cause. It was the general interest in the construction of the citadel, and not forced labor, that motivated the masses of builders. The cities were “set up” collectively, “by the whole world.”

Bibliography

1.Danilevsky, I.N. Ancient Rus' through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (IX-XII centuries): Course of lectures: textbook. manual for universities / I.N. Danilevsky. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - 339 p.

2. Old Russian state IX - XVII centuries. : textbook allowance / Ed. prof. V.V. Gulyaeva. - M.: Academic Project, 2006. - 575 p.

Dubov, I.V. Cities shining with majesty / I.V. Dubov. - L. Publishing house Leningrad. University, 1985. - 182 p.

Skrynnikov, R.G. Russian history. IX - XVII centuries / R.G. Skrynnikov. - M.: Ves Mir, 1997. - 496 p.

Tvorogov, O.V. ancient Rus': Events and people / O.V. Tvorogov. - St. Petersburg. : Nauka, 1994. - 219 p.

Tikhomirov, M.N. Ancient Rus' / M.N. Tikhomirov. - M.: Nauka, 1975. - 429 p.

Froyanov, I.Ya. City-states of Ancient Rus' / I.Ya. Froyanov, A.Yu. Dvornichenko. - L.: Publishing house Leningr. University, 1988. - 269 p.

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Novgorod the Great

The first mentions in chronicles date back to 859.

“Veliky Novgorod (until 1999 the official name was Noovgorod) is a city in the north-west of Russia, the administrative center of the Novgorod region, the City of Military Glory” .

Novgorod is actually a small town: area 90.08 km², population 221,954 people (2015).

“The peculiarity of Novgorod is that it has always been and remains divided into two parts - the Trade and Sofia sides, the border between which is the Volkhov River.

In the past, this division was not only geographical in nature, but was also reflected in the internal history of the city. The rivalry between residents of the Torgovaya and Sofia sides often led to open clashes on the bridge across the river.”

In 1992, by decision of UNESCO, the historical monuments of Novgorod and the surrounding area were classified as World Heritage Sites.

The most popular, beautiful places, architectural structures of the city:

Saint Sophia Cathedral
St. Nicholas Cathedral
Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary of the Anthony Monastery
St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery
Novgorod child
Church of the 12 Apostles on Propastekh
Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street
Church of Boris and Gleb in Plotniki
Gate tower of Gostiny Dvor
Novgorod Academic Drama Theater named after F. M. Dostoevsky
Novgorod Museum-Reserve
Church of the Nativity on Red Field
Architectural ensemble of Yaroslav's Court
View of the eastern wall of Detinets and Volkhov from the Victory Monument

In the photo the Novgorod Kremlin:

Despite its modest size, Novgorod abounds in educational institutions, beautiful places, monuments, architectural structures, Orthodox churches and temples of other religions; it is truly a city that preserves the history of our country in a concentrated form.

Moore

“Murom is a city in Russia, the administrative center of the Murom City District and the central city of the Murom District (not included in the district) of the Vladimir Region.

Located on the left bank of the Oka River, 137 km from Vladimir, on the border with the Nizhny Novgorod region.”

Also a small city, half the size of Novgorod - 43.78 km², population 110,746 people (2015).

There are many ancient educational institutions in Murom, for example, a religious school, a women's gymnasium, and even more monasteries and churches, many squares, monuments, and embankments.

In the photo is the Nikolo-Embankment Church:

In the photo is the Trinity Cathedral of the convent:

The photo shows a new bridge over the Oka River in Murom:

One of the most beautiful places in Murom, according to Russians, is the bridge:“On August 1, 2013, the Murom Bridge became the winner of the all-Russian Internet voting for the right to the honorary title “The Most Beautiful Bridge in Russia,” conducted by the Federal Road Agency.”

Rostov Veliky

First mentioned in chronicles in 862.

“Rostov, also Rostov the Great, is a city in the Russian Federation, the regional center of the Yaroslavl region, the administrative center of the Rostov region.

Located 53 km southwest of Yaroslavl, on the shores of Lake Nero. The area of the city is 32.0 km², the population as of 2012 is 31,368 people.”

With an area of 32.0 km², the population is only 30,824 (2015).

In the photo is the Assumption Cathedral in Rostov:

Rostov is truly one of the most outstanding monuments of culture and architecture of ancient Rus'.

“Rostov is the pearl of the Golden Ring, uniting the oldest cities in Russia. The city's significant cultural potential has made it one of the major centers of tourism and pilgrimage. Rostov is included in a special cooperation program between the Council of Europe and Russia for the preservation of historical and cultural heritage.”

Rostov the Great. Weekend excursions:

Ladoga (Old Ladoga)

Today Staraya Ladoga is a village, but a couple of centuries ago (until 1703) Ladoga was a city, moreover, “the ancient capital of Northern Rus'”.

First mentioned in chronicles in 862.

"Staraya Ladoga (until 1703 Ladoga) is a village in the Volkhov municipal district of the Leningrad region, the administrative center of the Staraya Ladoga rural settlement."

In the photo is the Staraya Ladoga Fortress:

The village has several striking attractions:

Staraya Ladoga Historical, Architectural and Archaeological Museum-Reserve, which includes the Staroladoga Fortress.
St. George's Church (Staraya Ladoga) (c. 1165)
Staraya Ladoga Nikolsky Monastery
Church of the Nativity of John the Baptist
Staroladoga Assumption Monastery
Assumption Cathedral (1160s)

Suzdal

First mention - 999.

“Suzdal is a city in Russia, the administrative center of the Suzdal district of the Vladimir region. Located on the Kamenka River, a tributary of the Nerl River, 26 km north of Vladimir. Suzdal is a city-reserve, part of the Golden Ring of Russia.”

A small town with an area of 15 km², with a population of 9978 people. (2015).

Pictured is the Church of the Resurrection:

View of the Nativity Cathedral from the Kamenka River:

In the photo, the Church of Elijah the Prophet on Ivanova Gora:

Panorama of the Intercession Monastery:

Despite its modest parameters, the city has several dozen significant historical sites, attractions, monuments (including wooden architecture), many churches, temples, and monasteries. This is one of the most outstanding ancient Russian cities, storing a huge number of cultural heritage monuments.

Vladimir

First mention 990.

“Vladimir is a city in Russia, the administrative center of the Vladimir region and the urban district “Municipal formation of the city of Vladimir.” The ancient capital of North-Eastern Rus'. One of the largest tourist centers in the European part of Russia. Included in the Golden Ring of Russia.

Located primarily on the left bank of the Klyazma River, 176 km east of Moscow.

The area of the city is 124.59 km². Population - 352,681 people. (2015)".

Several centuries ago, Vladimir was the center of the province of the Moscow province.

Today Vladimir is a large industrial center of Central Russia.

Photo of the Golden Gate:

In the photo is St. Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir:

“Tourists are attracted to the city by three white stone monuments of pre-Mongol architecture, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the White Stone Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal site:

Assumption Cathedral - cathedral in North-Eastern Rus' of the 14th century (1158-1160, rebuilt in 1185-1189; 6-pillar, 5-nave, 3-apse church with 5 domes; in the interior - fragments of frescoes of the 12th-13th centuries and fragments of frescoes of 1408 works by Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny; in 1810 a bell tower was added to the cathedral, in 1862 - a chapel of St. George);

Dmitrievsky Cathedral (1194-1197; 4-pillar, single-domed, with rich decorative carvings on the facades). Famous for its white stone carvings. In 1992 it was included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites;

Fortress Golden Gate (1158-1164, rebuilt in the 17th-18th centuries) - a white-stone triumphal arch with a semi-circular tuff vault, above it a gate church (renovated in 1469 by V. D. Ermolin; rebuilt in 1810).”

Also among the city's attractions:

“Trinity Church is an Old Believer church built at the beginning of the 20th century. at the expense of local schismatics.

Vladimir Central is a famous maximum security prison.

The water tower is a monument to engineering, technical and industrial architecture of the early years. XX century

The church is an active Catholic church of the late 19th century.

"Chambers" is a cultural and educational complex that includes a children's museum center and several mobile and permanent galleries and exhibitions.

etc."

VLADIMIR is a city with a thousand-year history:

Ivanovo

Despite the fact that the first official mention of the city dates back to 1609 (that is, not so early), there is reason to believe that the area itself with Russian people living on it existed for a long time, and there are also a lot of ancient cultural monuments here.

“Ivanovo (in 1871-1932 - Ivanovo-Voznesensk) is a city (since 1871) in central Russia on the banks of the Uvod River, the administrative center of the Ivanovo region.

Area 104.84 km². Population - 409,285 people. (2015).

The city of Ivanovo is primarily known for its textile industry, educational institutions and revolutionary history. Known as the “City of Brides”, “The Homeland of the First Council”, “The Calico Land”, the textile capital of Russia, as well as “Russian and Red Manchester”. Included in the Golden Ring of Russia."

Kostroma

Founded in 1152. First mentioned in 1213.

“Kostroma is a city (since 1152) in Russia on the Volga River, the administrative center of the Kostroma region, a large river port.

Population - 276,090 people. (2015). Located 344 km from Moscow. The area of the city is 144.5 km².

In 2011, the territorial and administrative division of the city into 3 districts was restored: Central, Fabrichny and Zavolzhsky.

In the photo Ipatiev Monastery (view from the opposite bank of the old bed of the Kostroma River):

In the photo is the Church of the Resurrection on Debra, photo 1910:

Kostroma was founded in the 12th century, and in the 13th century it became the center of an appanage principality.

The historical center of the city has largely preserved an exemplary ensemble of its kind from the classicism era of the late 18th-19th centuries. Of the monuments of the pre-Petrine era, the most interesting are the complexes of the Ipatiev and Epiphany-Anastasia monasteries.

The city is included in the list of settlements that have the official status of “historical”, and is traditionally included in the “Golden Ring of Russia.”

Yaroslavl

Founded in 1010. First mentioned in 1071.

The city is quite large compared to other ancient Russian cities: area 205.80 km², population 603,961 people (2015).

“Yaroslavl is a city in Russia, the administrative center of the Yaroslavl region and the Yaroslavl district, an urban district. Yaroslavl is the third largest city in the Central Federal District of the Russian Federation. The city is a transport hub from which railway lines and roads diverge in the direction of Moscow, Vologda, Rybinsk, Kostroma, Ivanovo and Kirov. There is also a river port and an airport in Yaroslavl.

View of the Assumption Cathedral from the Strelka:

In the photo is the Church of Elijah the Prophet:

Yaroslavl is one of the oldest Russian cities, founded in the 11th century and reaching its peak in the 17th century; in 2010 the city celebrated its millennium. City Day in Yaroslavl is usually celebrated on the last Saturday of May (in 2010, in connection with the city's millennium, the celebration was held from September 10 to 12).

The historic city center, located at the confluence of the Volga and Kotorosl rivers, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Yaroslavl is traditionally considered one of the main sites of the Golden Ring of Russia.”

The city has many significant cultural, architectural, historical monuments, parish churches, and monasteries.

Derbent

Founded in the 4th millennium BC. First mention in the 6th century. BC.

Derbent is a city in southern Russia in the Republic of Dagestan on a narrow passage between the Caspian Sea and the foothills of the Caucasus.

In the photo is the Naryn-Kala Fortress:

Area 69.63 km², population 121,251 (2015).

The city has many unusual attractions, some of the monuments are World Heritage: City Gates, Mosques, Museums, Monuments, Springs, Churches.

Kerch

Founded - 600 BC

Area 108 km², population 147,668 people (2015).

View of Mount Mithridates from the central square of the city

Pictured is the Yenikale Fortress

Kerch is a city in eastern Crimea on the shores of the Kerch Strait. Kerch is one of the oldest cities in the world. Currently, on its territory there are many historical and architectural monuments dating back to different eras and cultures. Hero city.

Uglich

Founded in 937, first mentioned in 1148.

Area 26.6 km², population 32,496 people (2015).

“Uglich is a city in Russia, the administrative center of the Uglich district of the Yaroslavl region, in the XIII–XVI centuries. center of the Uglitsky principality. Population - 32,496 people. (2015).

The city is located on the Volga River (Uglich Reservoir) 200 km north-northeast of Moscow and 92 km west of Yaroslavl. Tourist center on the Golden Ring.

Among the main attractions of Uglich:

“The Uglich Kremlin with the Church of Dmitry on Spilled Blood (1692), the Transfiguration Cathedral (1713), the bell tower (1730), the chambers of Tsarevich Dmitry (1482), etc.
Holy Resurrection Monastery.
Epiphany Monastery with a massive cathedral (1843–1853).
Alekseevsky Monastery (1371) with the Assumption (“Wonderful”) Church (1628).
Church of the Nativity of John the Baptist (1689–1690).
Ensemble of the Trade Square - Trade Rows (1860), merchant houses.
The oldest wooden residential building of the first third of the 18th century (House of Furs)
Civil development of the city in the 18th–19th centuries (Suponevsky Palace, Zimin Dvor).

11 km from the city, in the village of Uleyma, there is the Nikolo-Uleyma Monastery with an ensemble of pre-Petrine architecture. Another ancient suburban monastery, Pokrovsky Paisiev, was destroyed during Soviet times.”

Tomsk

Area 294.6 km², population 569,428 people (2016).

Founded in 1604. Tomsk is not ancient, but it is a historical city, it has many architectural, historical monuments, and beautiful places.

The unofficial name is “Siberian Athens”.

“Tomsk is a city in Russia, the administrative center of the region and district of the same name, located in the east of Western Siberia on the banks of the Tom River.

The oldest large educational, scientific and innovation center in Siberia: 9 universities, 15 research institutes, a special economic zone of technology-innovation type and 6 business incubators. He is a member of the Association of Siberian and Far Eastern Cities.

The city is rich in monuments of wooden and stone architecture of the 18th-20th centuries.”

In Tomsk there are many monuments of wooden architecture, houses that are several centuries old, in which people live... The city is beautiful, intelligent.

In the photo the Russian-German house:

In the photo is the Ascension Church in Tomsk:

Monument to the coat of arms of Tomsk, Epiphany Cathedral in the background:

In the photo is the White Cathedral Mosque:

Kazan Church and Chapel of Fyodor Kuzmich of the Mother of God-Alekseevsky Monastery:

Some of the most beautiful sights:

Russian-German House, Resurrection Church (made in the Siberian Baroque style), Epiphany Cathedral, University Grove, Kazan Church and Fyodor Kuzmich Chapel of the Virgin-Alekseevsky Monastery, White Cathedral Mosque, etc.

Traditionally, the ancient Russian cities of the Golden Ring are considered the most “rich in Russian history” territories.

“The Golden Ring of Russia is a family of tourist routes passing through ancient Russian cities, which have preserved unique monuments of Russian history and culture, and centers of folk crafts. The number and composition of cities on a particular route may vary. Below are the settlements that are included in different routes.

The cities of the Golden Ring belong to six regions: Moscow, Vladimir, Ivanovo, Kostroma, Tver and Yaroslavl.

The Golden Ring includes eight main cities - Sergiev Posad, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Rostov Veliky, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Ivanovo, Suzdal and Vladimir.”

However, wherever you look on Russian soil, there are historical cities and ancient churches. And only when you see all the beauty of these buildings do you understand how important it is to preserve them, because no new buildings, 100-story office centers in the high-tech style can compare with the original Russian beautiful cathedrals, imbued with the history, pride, and strength of Rus'.

The question of when the Slavs appeared in the territory where it later developed has not yet been completely resolved. Some researchers believe that the Slavs are the original population of this territory, others believe that non-Slavic tribes lived here, and the Slavs moved here much later, only in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. In any case, Slavic settlements of the 6th - 7th centuries. on the territory of modern Ukraine are already well known. They are located in the southern part of the forest-steppe, almost on the border of the steppes. Apparently, the situation here at that time was quite calm and there was no need to fear enemy attacks - Slavic settlements were built unfortified. Later, the situation changed dramatically: hostile nomadic tribes appeared in the steppes, and they began to build here near the city.

“City” in ancient Russian sources until the 16th century. fenced settlements and fortresses were called, regardless of their economic importance. At a later time, craft and trading settlements and large settlements began to be called this way, regardless of whether they had fortifications or not. In addition, when it comes to historical research, the term “city” does not mean exactly what (and sometimes not at all) what was meant by this word in Ancient Rus'.

What do modern researchers call an ancient Russian city?

Here are some typical definitions:

“A city is a populated area in which an industrial and commercial population is concentrated, more or less separated from agriculture.”

The word city in the Old Russian language meant a fortified settlement, in contrast to a village or village - an unfortified village. Therefore, any fortified place was called a city, both a city in the socio-economic meaning of the word, and a fortress itself or a feudal castle, a fortified boyar or princely estate. Everything that was surrounded by a fortress wall was considered a city. Moreover, until the 17th century. this word was often used to describe the defensive walls themselves.

In ancient Russian written sources, especially in chronicles, there are a huge number of references to the siege and defense of fortified points and the construction of fortifications - cities.

The fortifications of early Slavic cities were not very strong; their task was only to delay the enemy, to prevent him from suddenly breaking into the village and, in addition, to provide the defenders with cover from where they could hit the enemies with arrows. Yes, the Slavs in the 8th - 9th centuries, and partly even in the 10th centuries, did not yet have the opportunity to build powerful fortifications - after all, at that time the early feudal state was just being formed here. Most of the settlements belonged to free, relatively unpopulated territorial communities; They, of course, could not build powerful fortress walls around the settlement on their own or count on anyone’s help in their construction. Therefore, they tried to build fortifications in such a way that the main part of them consisted of natural barriers.

The most suitable for this purpose were islands in the middle of a river or in a difficult swamp. A wooden fence or palisade was built along the edge of the site and that was all. True, such fortifications also had very significant flaws. First of all, in everyday life the connection between such a settlement and the surrounding area was very inconvenient. In addition, the size of the settlement here depended entirely on the natural size of the island; it was impossible to increase its area. And most importantly, it is not always and not everywhere that you can find such an island with a platform protected by natural barriers on all sides. Therefore, island-type fortifications were used, as a rule, only in swampy areas. Typical examples of such a system are some settlements in the Smolensk and Polotsk lands.

Where there were few swamps, but there were moraine hillocks in abundance, fortified settlements were built on outlier hills. This technique was widespread in the northwestern regions of Rus'. However, this type of defense system is also associated with certain geographical conditions; Separate hills with steep slopes on all sides are also not found everywhere. Therefore, the cape type of fortified settlement became the most common. For their construction, a cape was chosen, bounded by ravines or at the confluence of two rivers. The settlement turned out to be well protected by water or steep slopes on the sides, but had no natural protection on the floor side. This is where it was necessary to build artificial earthen obstacles - to tear off a ditch. This increased the labor costs for the construction of fortifications, but also provided enormous advantages: in almost any geographical conditions it was very easy to find a convenient place and select in advance the desired size of the territory to be fortified. In addition, the earth obtained by tearing off the ditch was usually poured along the edge of the site, thus creating an artificial earthen rampart, which made it even more difficult for the enemy to gain access to the settlement.