Qing Dynasty. Chinese Ming Dynasty. Reign of the Ming Dynasty Reign of Zhu Yongwen
And it existed for about 260 years.
The dynasty was founded in 1616 in the territory of Manchuria (northeast of modern China) and soon, taking advantage of the unstable situation in China, where the central government was weakened by numerous peasant uprisings, it subjugated all of China, and then part of Mongolia and Central Asia. Thus, a nation of less than 1 million people conquered a people of 150 million. At the first stage, the Qing dynasty, in order to strengthen its power and position in Beijing, issued a decree according to which, under penalty of death, every man in the empire was obliged to dress in the Manchu style and shave the top of the head, as was customary among the Manchus.
However, the Manchu government became Sinicized quite quickly, and starting with the second Qing emperor in China (Kangxi), rulers began to speak Chinese and government positions were given to Chinese scholars. All this helped to overcome the tension between the Chinese and Manchu aristocracy, and peace and prosperity came to the country for more than 1.5 centuries, as if the calm before the ensuing storm.
The first half of the Qing period was marked by population growth and economic development. Until the end of the 18th century, after the ban on trade with other countries was lifted in 1684, China received huge amounts of silver by trading silk and tea, until this flow was blocked by the supply of opium. Overall, however, the Qing government continued its policy of self-isolation, which eventually led to the forced opening of the country by the European powers.
Chinese science, which once held a leading position in all fields, fell further and further behind European science, delving into philosophy. The Chinese perceived the knowledge received from European missionaries with distrust and did not use it to develop their own science. Ultimately, this ever-growing gap became the greatest drawback of Chinese civilization.
China achieved great success in art, which was experiencing another boom. Fundamental encyclopedias containing accumulated knowledge were created, painting, drama and literature developed (the first novel written in colloquial language appeared - “The History of the Stone, or the Dream in the Red Chamber,” telling about the fate of an aristocratic family).
The peaceful rule of the Qing dynasty was disrupted in the last years of the life of Emperor Gaozong (1736 - 1795). At this time, the cult “White Lotus Society” spread among the lower strata of the population, and then among dissatisfied educated people who did not get into public service. The uncontrolled growth of the sect aroused the suspicion of the government, which ordered an investigation, but the ensuing lawlessness of local officials led to an armed uprising. Members of the White Lotus Society, whose ranks were filled with robbers, began to attack government offices in the villages. At the same time, the Miao tribes rebelled in the south. It took the imperial army several years to suppress the uprisings, which showed the West the inadequacy of the Chinese armed forces and greatly undermined the authority of the ruling house. In addition to this, at the end of the 18th century, secret criminal groups began to form in Taiwan - “triads”, which at that time opposed the Manchu emperor and undermined the foundation of the Qing dynasty from within. It is interesting that these criminal communities still exist today.
The lifting of the ban on trade with other countries created a real trade boom: at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. The Portuguese, Dutch, British and Americans bought tea and silk in Canton and Macau, paying for the goods with imported textiles and American silver. China's exports significantly exceeded imports until the British, and after them the Americans, began to import opium into China. The drug turned out to be such a well-selling product that already from 1828 to 1836. imports exceeded exports by $36 million.
By that time, England had become the most powerful capitalist country, and the opium trade in Canton had occupied an important place in the British economy. The volume of drugs supplied to the Middle Kingdom grew exponentially. Many aristocrats and officials turned into real drug addicts, degradation swept through all segments of the population. The Chinese government banned the potion trade, but this only led to illegal trade, smuggling and corruption. In an attempt to stop the endless flow of opium into China, in March 1939, Special Commissioner Lin Chieh-hsu demanded that British and English traders stop importing the drug and confiscated their cash stocks of opium, destroyed in sea water. Following this, the British government declared the actions of the Chinese illegal and demanded compensation for losses, as well as additional benefits for their entrepreneurs and the provision of certain territories at their disposal. Having received no response from China, Britain declared war in April 1840. Soon the Americans joined the British. China was defeated in the first Opium War and in 1842 was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing, according to which, in addition to significant amounts of indemnity, Great Britain received Hong Kong in perpetuity, access for trade in five ports: Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Shanghai and Ningbo - low duties for the import of their goods and other privileges.
This treaty was a turning point in Chinese history, after which a period of new Chinese history began. The Treaty of Nanjing and its supplementary agreement placed China in an unequal position in its relations with Great Britain. They were followed by a series of similar unequal agreements.
In 1844, treaties were signed with the United States and France, extending to these countries the rights and privileges that were granted to Great Britain. For 60 years the country turned into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal state.
The appetite of the West, which had found in China a gigantic market and a constant source of income, was constantly growing. A few years after the signing of the peace treaty, the British demanded a revision of the conditions and the opening of cities, because... before that, all foreigners lived in special concessions. At the same time, China began to be torn apart by endless riots, piracy, and thriving smuggling, including illegal trade in Chinese workers. The hatred of the local population for the “barbarians” reached its climax: Europeans were attacked in the streets and thrown stones, but this did not stop the British. In October 1856, England and France launched a new war against China. In May 1858, the united army captured Tianjin, located just 150 km from Beijing: the Qing government was forced to hastily conclude a new treaty. The terms of the Tianjin Treaty became even more difficult for the Celestial Empire: added to the huge indemnity were the creation of permanent foreign embassies in Beijing, the opening of additional ports, permission for foreign missionaries to freely preach their religion, the opening of the Yangtze River up to Hankou, low trade duties and, finally, the legalization of the opium trade (Source: R. Kruger, “China: The Complete History of the Celestial Empire”).
The war, however, did not end there. In 1859, England and France demanded to remove the defenses on the Baihe River, but were refused. This was soon followed by a random military skirmish in the vicinity of Tianjin, in which the Chinese were victorious, killing about 400 enemy soldiers. In response, in 1860, the united army captured Tianjin and approached Beijing. Emperor Xianfeng fled, taking refuge behind the Great Wall of China. In October of the same year, the Anglo-French army sacked the Yuanmingyuan Summer Palace in the vicinity of Beijing. Soon the Qing government was again forced to sign a shameful and unequal peace treaty. The Beijing Treaty confirmed all the points of the Tianjin Treaty, in addition, England received the Kowloon Peninsula, and China was obliged to pay additional indemnity.
Almost simultaneously with the second Opium War, the most brutal peasant uprising in the history of the Celestial Empire broke out in China, which later became known as the Taiping Rebellion (1850 - 1864). The leader of the uprising was the Christian Chinese Hong Xiuquan, who came from a peasant family and proclaimed himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ. "Taiping" (太平) means "Great Calm" in Chinese.
Hun's ideas, along with hatred of the Manchus and barbarians from the West, very quickly found a response among the broad masses: within a few years, society turned into an influential and aggressive force. The bulk of the Taipings were ruined peasants, urban workers, and partly members of triads who wanted to overthrow the government. One of the signs of the Taipings was long hair - a protest against the Manchu haircut, which all men in the Qing Empire were required to wear. In 1851, about 20 thousand Taipings announced the creation of the Heavenly State of the Great Balance. In March 1953, the Taiping army, which had grown to two million people, occupied Nanjing, which Hong Xiuquan renamed Tianjing and made his capital. Thus, the Taipings actually built their state within the Qin empire. They passed new laws, carried out land reform, and even created a new calendar. In the Heavenly State, wine, tobacco, opium, gambling, extramarital affairs, as well as concubines and the binding of women's feet were prohibited. The land that belonged to God was distributed fairly among all men and women.
In 1856, disputes for power began among the heavenly princes in the leadership of the state, usually accompanied by murders. Taking advantage of the weakening of power in Taiping, the Qing army launched an offensive. The Europeans in this war chose to support the Manchus, refusing the call of the Chinese "Christian Brothers", believing that Taiping society was not only immoral, but also a threat to trade. In 1864, Tianjin was captured, and the “heavenly prince” committed suicide by taking a lethal dose of poison. Thus, with the support of England, France and the United States, the Qing government managed to suppress the Taiping peasant movement, which lasted 14 years.
Over the next 40 years, China continued to divide the world powers, finding more and more reasons for military aggression, as well as establishing a protectorate over the tributary countries of the Middle Kingdom, among which were Burma, Korea and Vietnam. By the end of the 19th century, Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands began to belong to Japan, Russia received Port Arthur for twenty-five years, England dominated Hong Kong, Canton, Shanghai and the northern tip of the Shandong Peninsula, Germany leased the Jiaozhou region in the north of Shandong Province for 90 years , France leased Guangzhou Bay for 99 years.
At the same time, starting in the 60s of the 19th century, the Qing government, realizing its crisis situation, made attempts to borrow advanced science from the West. However, the process of industrialization was very slow, which was largely due to the traditional Chinese mentality, which viewed any other people as barbarians, and imitation of them as a humiliation of the nation. In addition, then ruling as regent for her young son, and then for her young nephew, Empress Dowager Cixi had a poor understanding of the state of affairs in the country, spending millions on the construction of luxurious palaces, while the country was forced to take loans from Russia, Britain and other powers.
Reformers made themselves felt with renewed vigor after the coronation of the eighteen-year-old Emperor Guangxu, Cixi's nephew, in 1889, after which the empress officially ceded the throne to the new ruler, but in fact her influence at court remained the same. Guangxu was fascinated by Western knowledge and was interested in the ideas of Kang Yu-wei, a young scientist from Canton who actively advocated reforming the country. As a result of the personal meeting of the emperor with the scientist, the beginning of “100 days of reforms” was announced: changes were to affect industry, education and government. The bureaucrats sounded the alarm, and the Dowager Empress, with the support of her party, carried out a coup d'etat in September 1898, removing the emperor from power and retaking the throne. All decrees adopted during the “100 days” were canceled, but the reform machine was already launched, and nothing could drown out public opinion, which was increasingly demanding change.
Popular discontent resulted in uprisings, among which the largest was the “Boxer” or Yihetuan movement (1899 - 1902). The "Boxers" opposed the interference of "barbarians" in the economy, religion and politics of China and brutally dealt with Christians and "overseas devils", as well as all symbols of the presence of foreigners - railways, telegraph lines, etc. The “Boxers” were able to win Cixi’s favor, and the Empress began to support them, which excited the foreign public. In 1900, rioters swept into Beijing, burning Christian churches, embassies and the homes of foreigners. The Western powers reacted immediately: a month later, a 20,000-strong combined army of British, Americans, Japanese, Austrians, French and Italians was formed, which was quickly able to capture the capital. Cixi fled to Xi'an, the "Boxers" were brutally killed. China was forced to sign the even more humiliating "Final Protocol", after which the Qing government became completely a tool in the hands of the powers controlling China.
On November 14, 1908, Emperor Guangxu died after a short illness, and the next day Empress Dowager Cixi herself died. With her death, the Qing era effectively ended, although nominally the dynasty continued to exist; Cixi's 3-year-old nephew Pu-Yi was appointed the new heir. The Qing Empire finally ceased to exist after the Xinhai Revolution (1911 - 1913), in 1912 the act of abdication of the emperor from the throne was signed, and in 1924 the emperor was finally deposed, deprived of his titles, declared an ordinary citizen of the republic and expelled from Beijing.
The Chinese Qing Dynasty is the last dynasty to be in power from 1644 to 1912. Because of the people who founded it, the empire is also called Manchurian.
Collapse of the Ming Dynasty
At the beginning of the 17th century, China was in decline. The Ming monarchy that ruled at that time disgraced itself due to the expansion of the apparatus of officials, numerous extortions and colossal expenses for the maintenance of the imperial court. The peasants lived below the poverty line. The situation was aggravated by the aggravation of relations with a group of Manchu tribes, which at that time were actively seizing border territories. The Manchu leader Nurhaci, the founder of the new state of Jin, began a military campaign against China in 1618. His son Abahai, who ruled from 1626, changed the name of the dynasty to Qing, which meant “pure.” At this time, the Manchu army carried out regular attacks on Chinese territory, ravaging them and taking thousands of people captive. The plight was intensified by the famine that struck the country and the intensified peasant movements. In 1644, the last emperor of the Ming dynasty committed suicide, and Fulin, the first emperor of the Qing dynasty, came to power.
Heyday
The Manchus who ruled the country did not seek to contrast their culture with the Chinese and very quickly assimilated. Already from the end of the 17th century, all the emperors of the new dynasty were Confucians. Following this ancient teaching, they carried out a number of reforms that subsequently improved the economic situation in the country:
1. Streamlined the taxation system.
2. Made agriculture a priority.
3. Contributed to the intensification of agriculture and increased labor productivity.
Thus, the new emperors managed to subjugate the Chinese people and strengthen their power in China.
Trade and war
As a result of the reforms carried out, by the beginning of the 18th century, China's economy was flourishing. In this regard, trade relations with various European countries intensified. Residents of the Celestial Empire imported tea, porcelain and silk to Europe, exchanging them for gold and silver. At the same time, the British tried to trade a new product in China - opium. Due to the inability to obtain the right to trade, the Europeans launched two military campaigns, one after the other (1840-1842, 1856-1860), called the Opium Wars.
Their consequences were extremely difficult for the Chinese state. It was obliged to pay millions in indemnities to the winning countries, as well as expand their right to trade in China.
In 1894, a devastating war with Japan began. Its result was the return of the Liaodong Peninsula and an increase in payments to Japan, which won the war.
Sunset
In September 1898, as a result of a palace coup, the Dowager Empress Cixi came to power.
She suppressed all attempts by the entourage to reform the country, which increased tension in society. The last emperor Pu Yi, who ascended the throne at the age of less than 3 years, reigned for 3 years. The Qing Empire fell in 1911 as a result of the Xinghai Revolution, and the country was declared the Republic of China.
By the end of the 16th century, the northern neighbors of the Ming Empire - descendants of the Jurchen tribes defeated by Genghis Khan - united around the possession of Manchukuo under the leadership of the leader Nurhaci. In 1609, Nurhaci stopped paying tribute to China and then proclaimed his own Jin dynasty. Since 1618, the Manchus have been increasing armed pressure on China. In eight years they reach almost the Great Wall of China (in the far east).
Nurhaci's successor, Abahai, proclaims himself emperor and changes the name of the dynasty to Qing. The Manchu cavalry begins to make regular raids into China, plundering and enslaving hundreds of thousands of Chinese. Emperor Ming has to send his best army under the command of Wu Sangui to the northern borders.
Meanwhile, another peasant uprising is breaking out in China. In 1644, peasant troops under the leadership of Li Zicheng, having defeated all other armies, occupied Beijing, and Li Zicheng himself proclaimed himself emperor. Commander Wu Sangui allows the Manchu cavalry to enter Beijing and they defeat Li Zicheng in the Battle of Shanghaiguan. On June 6, 1644, the Manchus captured the capital. Li Zicheng soon dies, and the Manchus declare their young emperor Aixingiro Fulin the ruler of all China. Wu Sangui, along with the entire army, goes into the service of the conquerors.
China thus lost its state sovereignty and became an integral part of another state - the Manchu Qing Empire, although the struggle against the Manchu invaders continued for a long time: the last stronghold of resistance - Taiwan was captured by the Manchus in 1683.
The Manchus were the second foreign people to conquer China. The highest authorities and the leadership of the army were in the hands of the Manchu nobility. Mixed marriages were prohibited, and yet the Manchus quickly adapted to Chinese culture, especially since, unlike the Mongols, they did not oppose themselves to Chinese culture.
Beginning with Kangxi (reigned 1663-1723), the Manchu emperors were Buddhists and Confucians in ethics, governing the country according to ancient laws. China under the rule of the Qing dynasty in the 17th-18th centuries. developed quite intensively. By the beginning of the 19th century, there were already about 300 million people in the Qing Empire - about five times more than in the same territory on average over the previous two thousand years, which led to intensive development of agriculture with the active participation of the state. The Manchus ensured the obedience of the Chinese population, but at the same time cared about the prosperity of the country's economy and the well-being of the people.
The rulers of the Qing state pursued a policy of isolating China from the outside world. Catholic missionaries, who played a prominent role at the imperial court until the end of the 17th century, were gradually expelled, and Christian churches were closed. By the middle of the 18th century, trade with Europeans was eliminated, with the exception of one port in Canton (Guangzhou). The island of Macau, under Portuguese control, remained a stronghold for foreign trade.
During the first two centuries, the Qing Empire expanded in all directions and more than doubled its territory. In 1757, the Dzungar Khanate was destroyed, and its territory, together with East Turkestan, conquered by 1760, was included in the Qing Empire under the name Xinjiang (New Frontier). Korea became a vassal of the Qing Empire. At the end of the 17th century, the suzerainty of the Manchu emperors was recognized by the princes of Outer Mongolia. At the end of the 18th century, the state of Tibet was conquered. The expansion also extended to the northwest, which led to a conflict with Russia in the Amur region. However, it should be noted that the Qing Empire is not China: the latter was only one of its parts.
Opium and the Sino-Japanese War. At the end of the 18th century, China's trade with the outside world began to expand again. Chinese silk, porcelain, tea and other goods were in great demand in Europe, but the Chinese refused to buy anything from the Europeans, so they had to pay silver for Chinese goods. Then the British began to import opium into China, mostly smuggled from India. Soon the local population, especially in the coastal areas, was introduced to opium smoking.
The importation of opium into China steadily increased and became a real disaster for the country, leading to a series of Opium Wars in the mid-19th century. The defeat in these wars led to the gradual transformation of China into a de facto semi-colony of the European powers.
The result of the first Opium War was the victory of Great Britain, secured by the Treaty of Nanjing of August 29, 1842, the payment by the Qing Empire of an indemnity in the amount of 15 million silver liang ($21 million), the transfer of Hong Kong Island to Great Britain and the opening of Chinese ports to British trade, including opium.
As a result of defeat in the second "Opium" War (1856-1860), China was forced to fully accept the demands of the Western powers:
— opening of foreign diplomatic missions in China;
- the opening of specially designated ports to foreigners for residence and trade, including Canton, Amoy, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai, as well as the complete separation of Hong Kong;
- the establishment of special settlements in these ports under the control of a foreign administration;
- extraterritoriality of citizens of Western powers in China;
- freedom of navigation of foreign ships in Chinese territorial waters;
- participation of foreign powers in the regulation of Chinese customs tariffs, the activities of customs under the leadership of customs departments with foreign personnel in Chinese service;
- access of Christian missionaries to the interior of China.
In addition, the Taiping uprising (1848-1864) led by the Christian Hong Xiuquan posed a threat to the Manchu court. The goal of the uprising was the expulsion of foreigners, the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty and the creation of the Taiping heavenly kingdom, where everyone is equal. The Taiping Rebellion spread to the southern regions of China. The Taipings were suppressed by the Qing army with the support of the British and French only in 1864. The war resulted in a huge number of casualties - estimated at 20 to 30 million people.
Uprisings also occurred in other regions of China. In 1852-1868, the Nianjun uprising broke out in northern China. in 1856-1873 there was an uprising in Yunan province, and in 1862-69 there was a Dungan uprising.
During the same period, other events also took place: the death of Emperor Aishingyoro Izhu (August, 1861) brought his five-year-old son Zaichun, born from Precious Concubine Yi, to the throne. And already in November, a coup d’etat took place, as a result of which the regency council that was supposed to rule Before the emperor came of age, he was removed from power: the eldest, Prince Aisingiro Sushun, was executed, two princes had to commit suicide, and the rest were simply removed. The new co-regents were, of course, the initiators of the coup: Precious Concubine Yi, who changed her title to “Empress Dowager Cixi” and “Empress Dowager Qian,” and Prince Gong, who was appointed Prince Regent.
Grand Duke Gong was the initiator and conductor of a course of reform known as the “Self-Strengthening Movement” or the “Movement to Assimilate Overseas Affairs.” Prince Gong in 1861 established and headed the Zongli Yamen, an institution of the government of the Qing Empire, which served as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs instead of the traditional Ministry of Ritual. the next year he founded Tongwenguan, a school where students studied Western sciences. Western literature was translated into Chinese.
It should be noted that these reforms were conceived during the lifetime of the late emperor: In January 1861, a memorandum signed by Gong was sent to the emperor, which proposed the creation of a special body to develop policies designed to find ways out of the crisis in the relations of the Qing Empire with the outside world. peace.
The reason for the appearance of the memorandum was the work of scientists who studied the reasons for the defeat of the Qing Empire in the Opium Wars. The opinion of Feng Guifen, who had well studied the achievements of the Western world, was very revealing. From his point of view, the superiority of the moral and ethical principles of Confucianism was undeniable. Therefore, while allowing the borrowing of steam ships and modern firearms, it was necessary to remain faithful to the Confucian teachings: “Eastern teaching is the main one; Western teaching is applied.”
However, the privileges enjoyed by foreigners in China caused discontent among the local population. Riots often broke out against foreigners. The most serious of these was the Tianjin Massacre in 1870.
In January 1875, at the age of 19, Emperor Zaichun died, and remained all his life in the shadow of his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi, who insisted that power be transferred to 4-year-old Zaitian, the son of Prince Chun and Wanzhen, Cixi's sister. Thus, she cemented her family with the imperial one and continued to exercise actual power in the country. The emperor was declared under the name Guangxu. Meanwhile, the country continued to improve: the first railway, modern schools, telegraph communications appeared; Mechanical engineering and mining developed, and the navy was improved.
By 1884, North Vietnam was still nominally a vassal of the Qing dynasty, and France had captured Central and Southern Vietnam. In 1884-1885, the Franco-Chinese War broke out, unleashed by France for the right to own northern Vietnam. The French army and navy operated independently of each other. The French fleet was able to destroy the Chinese Fujian fleet and destroy the arsenal at Fuzhou, and then bombarded the fortifications in Taiwan and Zhenhai. The French army was less successful. The Chinese inflicted several defeats on them. The French government was forced to resign, and the new one decided not to prolong the war, and concluded the Tianjin Treaty with China, according to which China withdrew troops from northern Vietnam and handed it over to the French.
In 1894, a military coup took place in Korea. The new government withdrew from Chinese patronage, and under Japanese pressure asked Japan to expel the Chinese from its territory. On August 1, 1894, Japan declared war on China. The Qing troops were commanded by the elderly Li Hongzhang. The Chinese first lost the battle of Songhwan, and then the Huai Army was defeated in the battle of Pyongyang. The Beiyang Fleet was then defeated at the Battle of Yalu. Japanese troops invaded China and captured the Lushun fortress. Li Hongzhang was declared responsible for the defeats and removed from command. The Japanese, meanwhile, landed at Weihaiwei, the base of the Beiyang Fleet, and captured it. Ground forces approached the capital province of Zhili. The Qing government requested a truce, but Tokyo deliberately delayed negotiations because the Japanese had not yet captured the lands they wanted. On April 17, 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki was concluded, according to which Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were transferred to Japan.
Russia and Germany took advantage of China's weakening after the war. In 1896, Russia leased a strip of land in Manchuria for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway, and in 1898, the Liaodong Peninsula with the ports of Dalian (Dalniy) and Lushun (Port Arthur). In 1897, the Germans, in response to the murder of German missionaries, captured Qingdao and forced China to sign a 99-year lease; England also leased part of the Kowloon Peninsula near Hong Kong for 99 years.
Concessions to foreign powers forced Emperor Guangxu to agree to implement the reforms proposed by Kang Youwei. These reforms went down in history as the "Hundred Days of Reform", they lasted only 104 days and were stopped by Empress Cixi. Kang Youwei was forced to flee the country, his brother was executed, and Emperor Guanxu was removed from power by Empress Cixi. The refusal to reform strengthened revolutionary sentiments.
In 1898, the Yihetuan Uprising (1898-1901), or the Boxer Rebellion, began in northern China, aimed primarily against the dominance of foreigners. Empress Cixi, who initially tried to suppress the rebellion, then decided to use it to oust foreign powers. However, seeing the inevitable failure, she went over to the side of the Eight Power Alliance, which suppressed the uprising. As a result, China had to sign the Final Protocol, according to which it undertook to pay a huge indemnity and provide a number of new benefits to foreigners.
In 1901, a new reform program called the New Policy was adopted. For the first time, the Chinese government decided to encourage entrepreneurship rather than restrict it. A “New Army” was created, trained and equipped according to Western models. In 1906, work began on creating a constitution, and when Cixi and Guanxu died in November 1908, reforms accelerated, power passed to the 3-year-old Emperor Pu Yi, on whose behalf decrees were issued on the creation of committees to prepare a constitution and convene a parliament.
At the same time, the revolutionary movement developed. In 1895, Sun Yat-sen founded the Chinese Revival Union (Xinzhonghui) in Hawaii, which recruited supporters among the secret societies of Southern China and Chinese immigrants. In the summer of 1905 in Japan, several revolutionary organizations united to form the “Chinese United Revolutionary Union” (Zhongguo Geming Tongmenhui). The activities were based on Sun Yat-sen's “three principles of the people”: nationalism, democracy and people's welfare.
On November 14, 1908, Emperor Guangxu, whom Empress Cixi had previously removed from power, died. Guangxu was poisoned because Cixi did not want him to survive her. The next day the Empress herself died. Emperor Pu Yi, who was two years old, ascended the throne. His father, Prince Chun, was appointed regent.
In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising began in China. It marked the beginning of the Xinhai Revolution (1911-1913), as a result of which the Manchu dynasty was overthrown. The Qing Empire collapsed and the creation of the Chinese Republic was proclaimed.
As a result of the peasant uprising, the power of the Mongols was overthrown. The (foreign) one was replaced by the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644). From the end of the 14th century. China is thriving economically and culturally. Old cities begin to develop, and new ones appear, in which trade and crafts predominate. The process of the country's evolution is reinforced by the emergence of manufactories, where the division of labor is introduced. The best scientists, architects, and artists are attracted to the imperial court. The main emphasis is on urban construction.
Chinese Ming Dynasty: economic transformations
Almost immediately after the advent of this dynasty, measures began to be introduced to improve the existing situation of the peasants, since it was they who helped bring about the change of power. The Ming Dynasty revived the allotment system in the North, which eliminated the economic power of the landowning elite (North Chinese), which had previously allied with the Yuanyam. But in the South, everything was exactly the opposite - landownership was preserved. Modernization of the existing accounting and tax system, as well as special attention from the authorities to irrigation - all this contributed to rapid economic growth.
The growth of the urban economy was traced, the reason for which was regional specialization (porcelain production was located in Jiangxi, and mainly railway production was located in Guangdong), the emergence of new directions, a special place among which was occupied by the construction of 4-deck ships.
Commodity-money relationships are also gradually developing. Private manufactories appeared on the basis of merchant capital. Central and Southern China became the site of the emergence of craft gardens. Subsequently, the prerequisites for the creation of a pan-Chinese market were formed (the number of official fairs was already close to 38).
but on the other hand
Simultaneously with the above progressive phenomena, there were a number of obstacles hindering the development of entrepreneurship (this was typical for the entire East). These include state monopolies, state-owned manufactories in which more than 300 thousand artisans worked, state levies on trade and it was they who did not give the economy the opportunity to switch to a qualitatively different production.
Ming Dynasty
During the period of economic growth and strengthening of state power, a predominantly offensive policy was pursued (until 1450 it was called “facing the sea”, and after that it became “facing the barbarians”).
The most significant event of this time is the expansion of China, which affected the states of the South Seas.
The Ming Dynasty, due to the growing need to solve the problem of Japanese, Chinese, and Korean piracy, was forced to create a fleet that consisted of 3,500 ships. Further economic growth contributed to the completion of as many as seven expeditions of a separate fleet, led by the chief eunuch Zheng He, to East Africa. This naval commander had at his disposal 60 large 4-deck ships, the length of which reached 47 meters, they had such pretentious names as “Pure Harmony”, “Prosperity and Prosperity”. Each carried a crew of 600, including a group of diplomats.
Extract from logbooks
According to them, during the journey to the coast, Zheng, speaking in modern language, acted calmly and humbly at sea. However, occasionally small foreigners did not obey the good intentions of the emperor.
Reign of the Ming Dynasty: History
The main emphasis of Zhu Yuanzhang (the first in the period 70-80) was on the final expulsion of the Mongols from his country, suppressing attempts at social protest among Chinese peasants through the procedure of improving the economy and strengthening personal power. Such tasks were solved by increasing the army, strengthening centralization, the use of the harshest methods, which caused discontent among all segments of the population.
At the same time as limiting the powers of local authorities, the emperor relied on numerous relatives who later became rulers - vans (title) of appanage principalities due to the fact that, in his opinion, children and grandchildren were the most reliable.
There were kingdoms throughout the country: near the periphery they performed a defensive function against threats from the outside, and in the center they acted as a counterweight to separatism and rebellion.
In 1398, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang died, after which the court camarilla, bypassing his direct heirs, elevated Zhu Yongwen, one of his grandsons, to the throne.
Reign of Zhu Yunwen
He first of all had his eye on the system of inheritances created by his grandfather. This caused the war with Jingnan (1398 - 1402). The confrontation ended with the capture of the capital of the empire, Nanjing, by the ruler of Beijing - the eldest son of Zhu Yuanzhang, Zhu Di. She burned down in a fire along with his opponent.
Third Emperor of the Ming Dynasty
Zhu Di continued his father's policy of centralizing the state, while abandoning the existing system of vans (in 1426 the rebellion of dissatisfied vans was suppressed). He laid siege to the titular nobility and increased the importance of the palace secret services in the process of governing the state.
Under him, the question of what significantly influenced the political weight of the South and the North was finally resolved. Thus, the latter, acting as the cradle of Chinese civilization, loses its weight in the 3rd - 5th centuries. in favor of the first due to the constant threat of nomads. These parts of the country are carriers of fundamentally different traditions and mentalities: southerners are complacent, carefree, and northerners are decisive, tough, having a higher social status - “han-zhen”. All this was reinforced by existing linguistic (dialectical) differences.
The Yuan and Song chose the North as their political base, but the Ming Dynasty, on the contrary, chose the South. This is what gave them the opportunity to win.
In 1403, the new emperor renamed the existing Beiping (translated as “Pacified North”) to Beijing (“Northern Capital”). So, until 1421, China had two capitals - the imperial one in the north and the government-bureaucratic one in the south. Zhu Di thereby got rid of the influence and tutelage of the southerners, while simultaneously depriving the southern bureaucracy (Nanjing) of excessive independence.
In 1421, the capital was finally consolidated in the North. In connection with the Ming, she secured the support of the North Chinese population and strengthened the country's defense capabilities.
Ming Emperors
As mentioned earlier, this dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644. The Ming replaced the Mongol Yuan in a popular uprising. In total, sixteen emperors of this dynasty reigned for 276 years. For ease of reference, the emperors of the Ming Dynasty are listed in the table below.
Years of reign | Motto |
|
1. Zhu Yuanzhang | 1368 - 1398 | Hongwu ("Spill of Militancy") |
2. Zhu Yunwen | 1398 - 1402 | Jianwen (“Establishment of Civil Order”) |
1402 - 1424 | Yongle ("Eternal Joy") |
|
4. Zhu Gaochi | 1424 - 1425 | Hongxi ("Great Radiance") |
5. Zhu Zhanji | 1425 - 1435 | Xuande ("Spreading Virtue") |
6. Zhu Qizhen | 1435 - 1449 | Zhengtong ("Lawful Heritage") |
7. Zhu Qiyu | 1449 - 1457 | Jingtai ("Shimmering Prosperity") |
8. Zhu Qizhen | 1457 - 1464 | Tianshun (Heavenly Favor) |
9. Zhu Jianshen | 1464 - 1487 | Chenghua ("Perfect Prosperity") |
10. Zhu Yutang | 1487 - 1505 | Hongzhi ("Generous Rule") |
11. Zhu Houzhao | 1505 -1521 | Zhengde ("True Virtue") |
12. Zhu Houcong | 1521 - 1567 | Jiajing ("Wonderful Peace") |
13. Zhu Zaihou | 1567 - 1572 | Longqing ("Sublime Happiness") |
14. Zhu Yijun | 1572 - 1620 | Wanli ("Countless Years") |
15. Zhu Yujiao | 1620 -1627 | Tianqi ("Heavenly Guidance") |
16. Zhu Yujian | 1627 - 1644 | Chongzhen ("Sublime Happiness") |
Outcome of the Peasants' War
It was she who caused the fall of the Ming Dynasty. It is known that, unlike an uprising, it is not only numerous, but also affects different segments of the population. It is larger-scale, long-lasting, well-organized, disciplined due to the presence of a leadership center and the presence of ideology.
It is worth examining this event in more detail to understand how the fall of the Ming Dynasty occurred.
The first stage of the peasant movement began in 1628 and lasted for 11 years. Over 100 outbreaks failed to unite and were suppressed. The second stage occurred in 1641 and lasted only 3 years. The united forces of the rebels were led by the capable commander-in-chief Li Zichen. He managed to form a peasant army from the existing numerous chaotic detachments, which was distinguished by discipline and had clear tactics and strategy.
Li advanced rapidly under slogans popular among the masses regarding the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty. He promoted universal equality and promised no taxes at the end of the war.
As it became known, in the early morning of April 26, 1644, absolutely no one came to the ringing of the bell, which called the ministers to come to Emperor Chong Zhen for an audience. Then he said that this was the end, his associates began to cry. The Empress turned to her husband for the last time and told him that for 18 years she had been devoted to him, but he never bothered to listen to her, which led to this. After this, the empress hanged herself with her belt.
The emperor had no choice but to clumsily kill his daughter and concubine with a sword and hang himself with his belt on an ash tree. Following the emperor, according to the customs of that time, all 80 thousand officials passed away. According to one version, the Great Sovereign left a note on a piece of silk, which was addressed to Li Zichen. In it, he said that all officials are traitors, and therefore deserve death, they must be executed. The emperor justified his death by his reluctance to be beholden to the lowest, most despicable of his subjects. After several hours, the invader's envoys removed the emperor's body from the tree and then placed it in a coffin intended for the poor.
Great Ming Dynasty Tomb
More precisely, tombs, since on the territory of the famous memorial there are the graves of thirteen emperors of this dynasty. The Ming Dynasty tomb extends over 40 square meters. km. It is located approximately 50 km from Beijing (north) at the foot of the great Mountain of Heavenly Longevity. The Ming Dynasty tomb is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many people come to Beijing just to see her.
Conclusion
The Manchu yoke of the newly created Qing dynasty, one might say, was imposed on the country during European times, which doomed China to as many as 268 years of political and socio-economic stagnation before the growing colonial expansion from Europe.
The two most powerful dynasties are the Ming and Qing. But the differences between them are colossal: the first showed the people the opportunity to take a new, progressive path, allowed them to feel free and significant. The second destroyed everything that had been created by many years of labor and made the state reclusive.
Previously, Chinese buyers of Chinese art stuck to examples of ceramics and artwork from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 AD) and Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD), while Western buyers gravitated toward older work.
When Michael Bass, vice president of Christies (a London auction firm), founded the Chinese ceramics and art department in 2000, approximately 80% of the collectors in the sales rooms were American.
“Then in 2005 and 2006 there was an influx of buyers, not from the West, but from greater China,” Bass said. “Over the past three years, 40-60% of buyers are Chinese... They dictate the nature of sales.”
These Chinese buyers, fixated on imperial pottery from the Qing and Ming dynasties, outnumber Western buyers. They avoid older works, apparently considering it a shame to own objects that were buried with the dead.
But over the past six to seven years, even the Chinese have started collecting earlier artwork, according to Bass. They are now also interested in Tang Dynasty pottery, archaic bronzes and ancient jades - the same categories that have traditionally attracted Western buyers.
“The market is really broad now,” Bass said. “And there is interest in all these categories.”
Still, it should not be said that the market has completely turned towards earlier dynasties. Collectors and dealers auction off what they think will make them money.
At most major Chinese art auctions in recent years, Qing Dynasty objects often make up about half the lots. While interest in Ming and Qing pottery isn't expected to cool anytime soon, "jades and bronzes have already risen in price," Bass said.
This could mean that other segments of earlier Chinese works will soon also rise in value, and the focus may be on American collectors who continue to collect earlier works.
"A lot of Americans are still looking for early pottery - whether it's the Tang galloping horse, the pretty lady from the Tang dynasty or Han Dynasty art," Bass said.
And for them the current prices are attractive. The vast majority of early jades and pottery are valued at less than $20,000, with many high-quality adjustments priced at just a few thousand dollars.
There's an obvious side investment incentive: China's vast art history has a lot to offer. Each dynasty brought with it a different lifestyle, new styles of costume, and a distinct culture, which manifests itself as an individual flavor in the art of that era.
Chinese culture has a history of 5,000 years, and the Ming and Qing dynasties together occupied a span of time of only 544 of those years. Finds from an earlier period, preceding the last two dynasties, are of great interest to cultured and inquisitive people.
Chinese art by period
Neolithic period (3000–1500 BC)
The artwork we now have from this period mainly consists of jades and pottery. They do have a distinctive feature from the works of the time when Chinese civilization was a handful of tribes.
Clay pottery was often painted with red and black large round abstract and geometric shapes. The brushes are intended to be used throughout China's long history, according to records from the Mets Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
Of all aspects of Neolithic culture, the Met Museum calls jade artifacts "the most enduring contribution to Chinese civilization."
Jade is such a hard substance that it cannot be cut, but can be polished using quartz or garnet sand. It is remarkable that Neolithic artisans worked on it in large quantities, despite such a labor-intensive process.
Based on the discovery of jade funerary objects, scientists explain that these cultures valued jade because of its ability, they believed, to preserve the dead.
Shang and Zhou dynasties (1523–256 BC)
Bronze vessels are the main works of art from these dynasties that we have today. The perfect quality of surface detail on bronze items is amazing. Animal forms and motifs, including the iconic image of the taotie (hungry animal), were widely used on vessels of this period.
These vessels had dynamic shapes that were first modeled after ceramic forms and gradually evolved to become more complex as technology advanced. They were used for ritual food and wine sacrifices.
Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)
The Qin Dynasty is considered the first dynasty in China to unify the country. The famous "Terracotta Warriors" found in the huge tomb of the first emperor are a testament to advanced artistic production. The bodies of the warriors were manufactured using an assembly line method, but no one face was like the other.
Since this dynasty's era was short and turbulent, most of the artistic works of this period are identified as belonging to the previous or subsequent dynasties.
Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)
Most Chinese today consider themselves "Han" because the Han Dynasty was when Chinese cultural identity truly emerged. The empire stretched from the Great Wall to the South China Sea.
During the Han period, paper and glazed pottery were invented, and literature and diplomacy with the West flourished.
Ceramic figurines, vessels and other objects in the shape of animals and towers are the main artistic works surviving from this dynasty.
Six Dynasties (220–586 AD)
Despite political instability and constant war (which is why there were six dynasties during this period), Buddhism and Taoism flourished, as well as poetry, thanks to the invention of the wooden printing press.
The pottery of this period stands out, especially the greenish and greenish-gray porcelain of the Jin Dynasty.
Sui Dynasty (581–618 AD) The Sui Dynasty is famous for its fine white clay pottery, made in simple shapes and fired with a transparent glaze. Buddhist sculpture flourished and was greatly influenced by Indian style.
Tang Dynasty (618–906 AD)
The Tang Dynasty is regarded as the pinnacle of Chinese civilization. The Silk Road brought various influences from foreign countries, and all forms of artistic expression - painting, literature, sculpture and ceramics - reached an unprecedented level of sophistication.
One of the most iconic types of Tang artwork is the painted ceramic horse or camel. Often there are works where a realistic looking animal is accompanied by a Western groom or horseman. Five Dynasties (907–960 AD)
The good times of the Tang Dynasty ended with the weakening of imperial control. But artists of the Five Dynasties period further developed the technique of using prized white porcelain. Landscape painting took on a mythical direction with a new style reflecting the Taoist perception of nature that would become a hallmark of Song Dynasty painting.
Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD)
The first half of the era of this dynasty was peaceful, but the second half was full of revolutions. The artistic works of this period are filled with peace. Landscapes evoke restrained emotions in the viewer. The subject side of Song ceramics approached the everyday. The works had simple lines, especially those fired in the Cizhou kiln in Northern China.
Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 CE)
This was the Mongol dynasty - the first time China was ruled by a foreign power.
Indigenous Chinese and nomadic Mongolian characteristics in art were mixed, and works emerged that had animal motifs, bold painterly style and dynamic forms. The court used themes from Tantric Buddhism, which also manifested itself in the production of mandalas and sculptures of pagan deities in classical Mongolian forms.
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD)
In an effort to restore the primacy of Chinese cultural characteristics, some artists turned to ancient forms in their ceramic artwork and sculpture. Yet in the early Ming dynasty, the decorative arts exhibited features of “the rich eclectic heritage of the Mongol Yuan dynasty,” as stated in the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History essay.
The blue-white and painted products and enamel are especially remarkable.
Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 CE)
China's last Qing dynasty was ruled by the Manchus, not the ethnic Han Chinese.
Art and culture flourished under the Kangxi and Jinlong Emperors.
Elaborate, multi-colored compositions appeared on painted illustrated china and paintings. The craftsmanship of jade crafts has reached new heights with some clever and elegantly executed works.
Ultimately, Western demand for these cultural and commercial products led to the collapse of the dynasty.
