Causes and background of the First World War

Introduction

The First World War was one of the most difficult trials for humanity at the beginning of the 20th century. World War I began on August 1, 1914. It was attended by two military-political blocs - the Entente and the Triple Alliance. The First World War shook the economic system of the capitalist world to its foundations and revealed the close relationship between war and the economy. The course of hostilities largely depended on the solution of economic problems. For the first time in history, the decisive factor in the war was the military-industrial potential, which was an integral part of the entire complex of the national economy of each of its participants. The transition of the economy of the belligerent states to a military footing was carried out in emergency conditions. Their impact at the first stage of the war led to the disruption of the pre-war economic system, a sharp reduction in industrial production (except for the military sector), the closure of many commercial enterprises, which in turn led to a sharp reduction in international economic ties. The war, in turn, confronted the allies in the war with the problem of coordinating their military-economic measures.

New trends have given new content to international economic relations, bringing to life unprecedented phenomena of interstate regulation of the economy within the framework of the Entente. On the one hand, and the Quarter Union, on the other. The joint discussion of issues of military-economic cooperation, the creation of interstate economic bodies, attempts to implement interstate accounting and control in the distribution of material resources for supplying the army are becoming the most important elements in the relationship between the allies.

In Russia, the military-industrial potential was relatively small due to the weak development of mechanical engineering; most of the machinery and equipment had to be imported from abroad. Despite the fact that over the past few decades, Russia has managed to significantly reduce its economic gap, relying both on internal resources and on the technological knowledge and capital of entrepreneurs from industrialized countries, it was significantly inferior in preparedness for war compared to both allies and , in particular, with its main adversary - Germany. The First World War dealt a tangible blow to world economic relations, severed numerous threads of international exchange, financing, supply of raw materials and food. The world economy, which at the beginning of the 20th century turned into a single economic mechanism, broke up into a number of more or less isolated regions. The disruption or disorganization of traditional foreign economic relations posed complex problems for the economies of the warring states.

There is no doubt that the influence of the war on the state of the national economy had some common features. In all European belligerent countries, the ratio between imports and exports in foreign trade turnover has changed dramatically: the share of imports has increased sharply, while exports, on the contrary, have decreased. Before the war, Russia was less connected to the international market than other European countries. The First World War, which was devastating for the national economy of Russia, radically changed and greatly complicated the state and further development of the entire complex of Russia's international relations. The forced concentration of all industrial activity on military production destroyed external economic ties, which had a significant impact on its economy, financial condition and foreign trade relations.

1. The factor of space in the strategic policy of the First World War.

The political climate on the eve of and during the First World War was characterized by an increased interest in space issues and adherence to the ideological schemes of the early 20th century.

First, the widespread social Darwinism contributed to the fact that interstate rivalry was perceived as a logical continuation of the struggle for survival. As a result, every European nation felt that its very existence was threatened. Under these conditions, space was seen as the most important component of national security. Germany was extremely concerned about the insufficient size of its territory and its position as a country in a hostile environment in the center of Europe. The Russian-French alliance of 1893-1894 further strengthened the Germans' feeling of constriction and lack of living space.

On the eve of the war, the colonial division of the world was completed. But could it be final? There were always patches of disputed territories, in particular the remnants of crumbling empires (for example, the Portuguese possessions in Africa, which, according to a secret agreement concluded by Great Britain and Germany in 1898, were subject to division between the two powers; the Ottoman Empire slowly fell apart throughout the 19th century and represented tasty morsels for young predators). Having colonies means not only having markets and sources of raw materials, but also being a great and respected power.

The beginning of the 20th century was also marked by the emergence of a number of unifying tendencies: Pan-Germanism, Pan-Slavism, and so on. Europe turned out to be a place of collision of these forces, which were concentrated around one or another great power (the Germans around Germany, the Slavs around Russia). Each of these movements demanded for itself a vast homogeneous space and sought to break up, grind the existing heterogeneous formations, primarily Austria-Hungary, a mosaic state, united only by the belonging of each of its parts to the Habsburg dynasty.

Europe perceived itself as a single theater of military operations - and was supposed to become one in the near future. Thus, the famous Schlieffen plan, developed between 1898 and 1905, provided for a Franco-Russian alliance directed against Germany. In the event of a war in Europe, Germany, sandwiched between two hostile states, was supposed to strike first of all to the west, to attack France, bypassing its defenses on Belgian territory from the east (despite Belgian neutrality). Then, having won a convincing victory in the West, the German troops were to go to war with Russia.

Finally, the territorial goals in the war were of great historical importance. France never forgot about Alsace and Lorraine taken from her. Only the return of the annexed provinces could wash away the shame and humiliation of 1870.

In turn, Great Britain entered the war on August 4, 1914, largely in obedience to an age-old geopolitical reflex: to resist any great power seeking to establish its control over Belgium and thereby deprive England of its connection with the European continent.

2. Russia in the First World War in 1914-1916. Background and reasons.

1. Background and reasons.

1.1. The aggravation of the global confrontation between the great powers, primarily England and Germany, began the struggle for the redistribution of the world, including the redistribution of colonies.

1.2. The development of contradictions in certain regions, perceived by the countries - world leaders as key points in the struggle for spheres of influence. The confrontation in the Balkans between Russia and its ally Serbia and Austria-Hungary, along with allied Bulgaria, reached a particular urgency. The explosiveness of the situation was aggravated by the fact that England, Germany, France and Italy also pursued their interests here. By 1914, Germany had become the dominant military power in the Balkan region, taking control of the Ottoman army. Russia's desire to master the Black Sea straits was now blocked not only by England, but also by the German-Turkish military alliance.

The situation in the Middle and Far East was not easy, where the new superpowers the United States and Japan sought to spread their influence.

1.3. A huge role was played by the political and economic rivalry between Germany and France, who fought for the establishment of production and marketing hegemony in Europe.

1.4. The internal political tasks of the Russian state objectively contradicted the tendency to start hostilities. The early start of the war could not but be disastrous for the completion of reforms designed for a long period of time. But a feature of the autocracy of the early twentieth century. and personally Nicholas II were an underestimation of the revolutionary potential of Russian society and illusions regarding a pacifying external confrontation, not destroyed by the Russo-Japanese war.

From the beginning, the Russian leadership for a long time misjudged the military prospects, counting on an early successful end to the war after a decisive blow from the allies and rejecting all German proposals for a separate peace in 1914-1916.

2. Preparation

2.1. Army reorganization. In 1908-1913. A number of military reforms were carried out in Russia. The size of the army has increased, the service life has increased, the system of combat training has improved. The officer corps has changed: more than 2,000 senior officers have been fired, class restrictions on admission to officer schools have been abolished. As a result, the Russian army became equal in size to the armies of Germany and Austria-Hungary. But its qualitative transformation by 1914 had not yet been completed.

2.2. Arms growth. Military spending increased over this period by 3.7 times, reaching 40% of the country's budget. After the destruction in the Russo-Japanese War, the fleet began to revive. Back in 1907, the "Small Shipbuilding Program" was adopted, and in 1912 - the "Shipbuilding Program of the Baltic Fleet". The armaments of the ground forces were also modernized, but only in 1913 was the "Great Program to Strengthen the Army" adopted, during which, in 1914-1917. it was planned to increase and modernize artillery, strengthen engineering troops, create military aviation and road transport. By the beginning of the war, the program had just begun to be implemented.

As a result, Russia lagged behind in terms of military budget, artillery, and so on. from Germany, which completed its military program by 1914. Russia's lag behind by 2.5 times in terms of the capacity of the railways leading to the areas of future battles was also very important.

2.3. diplomatic training. In 1913 Russia was able to sign a naval convention with England, which completed the formation of the Entente as a military alliance.

2.4. military plans. Germany considered the summer of 1914 the most favorable moment to start the war, since the Entente countries, especially Russia, were not fully prepared for war. The German General Staff planned to defeat France with the help of a lightning war (blitzkrieg) and, together with Austria-Hungary, throw all their forces into the fight against Russia.

Russia expected to launch an offensive in the northwest against Berlin and in the southwest against Vienna after the completion of mobilization. The tsar's uncle, Nikolai Nikolaevich, was appointed commander-in-chief.

Both sides expected to win the war within 3-4 months.

3. The beginning of the war

3.1. Cause to start a war. On June 15 (28), 1914, in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, on the day of the opening of the provocative military maneuvers of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian emperor, was killed. Austria, accusing a Serbian nationalist organization of the murder, demanded the entry of troops into Serbia and the admission of investigators to its territory. On the advice of Russia, Serbia accepted the ultimatum, rejecting only the Austrian occupation, which was unacceptable to Serbian sovereignty. Despite Russia's appeal to Austria-Hungary and Germany, on July 15 (28) Austrian artillery bombarded the capital of Serbia - Belgrade.

3.2. Declaration of war. On July 30 (17) Russia announced a general mobilization, notifying Berlin that these actions were not anti-German, but taking a tough stance against Austria. Germany, in an ultimatum form, demanded an end to the mobilization and, having received no answer, on July 19 (August 1, according to a new style), 1914, declared war on Russia. On August 2, France began mobilizing, declaring support for Russia. On August 3, Germany declared war on France and launched an offensive through Belgium and Luxembourg. England entered the war on August 4, and Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia on August 6. The war engulfed all of Europe, and later a significant part of the world. On August 23, Japan joined the Entente, in 1915 - Italy, in 1917 - the USA. Turkey (1914) and Bulgaria (1915) acted as allies of Germany and Austria-Hungary. In total, 38 states of the world participated in the war.

4. The course of hostilities

4.1. The first offensives of 1914 After the defeat of the Franco-British troops on the border of France and the rapid advance of the German troops to Paris, Russia, even before the completion of mobilization, at the request of France, launched an offensive simultaneously in East Prussia and in Galicia.

4.1.1. In East Prussia, the 1st (P.K. Rennenkampf) advancing from the east and the 2nd (A.V. Samsonov) Russian armies advancing from the east, and at the end of August inflicted a number of defeats on a small German grouping. After the transfer of 2 corps from France and reserve units, Germany, using the inconsistency of the actions of the Russian troops, surrounded and defeated the 2nd army of General Samsonov, who committed suicide, and forced the 1st army to retreat.

4.1.2. In Galicia, the offensive in August-September 1914 was more successful. The 8th Army (A. Brusilov) took Lvov, Russian troops laid siege to Przemysl, pushing the Austrians back 300 km. from the border across the river San. It seemed that Austria-Hungary was defeated.

4.1.3. For the invasion of Germany, the Russian command, without consolidating success in the southwest, began the transfer of troops from Galicia to Poland, but in September-October, the Austro-German armies launched a preemptive attack on Lodz and Warsaw. In the bloody and large-scale Warsaw-Ivangorod and Lodz operations in October-November, both sides suffered heavy losses (2 million people - Russia, 950 thousand - its opponents), but did not fulfill their tasks. At the same time, Russia stopped the Austro-German offensive, but was unable to undertake a campaign against Berlin and retreated deep into Poland. A positional war began at the front.

4.1.4. The war with Turkey began with an attack on October 29 by the Turkish-German fleet on Sevastopol, Odessa, Novorossiysk and Feodosia and the offensive of Turkish troops in the Caucasus. The Caucasian army, going on a counteroffensive, defeated the superior Turkish forces, pushing them back to Erzrum in December, which facilitated the actions of the allies on the Mesopotamian front.

4.1.5. The results of the hostilities of 1914 consisted in the disruption of plans for a quick victory for Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Russian offensives in East Prussia and Galicia made it possible for the Allies to win a victory on the Marne in September and stabilize the front in France. As a result, Germany, despite some successes, was forced to wage a protracted war on two fronts.

During the fighting, the superiority of the German army over the Russian army in artillery and ammunition supply was revealed, the weakness of the Austrian and Turkish troops was manifested.

4.2. Defeats in 1915

4.2.1. Southwestern front. After some Russian successes in January-March (taking Przemysl, reaching the Carpathian Range, repulsing the German offensive from East Prussia), the situation changed in April-May. The Austro-German troops, using massive artillery shelling, forced the Russian troops to retreat, experiencing a severe "shell hunger" and captured most of Galicia and Volhynia. But the front in the southwest was not broken.

4.2.2. Western front. In the summer, the German armies occupied Poland with Warsaw, then part of Belarus, Lithuania with Vilna, Latvia and went to Riga. By October, the front stopped, a long trench war began.

4.2.3. Results of 1915. The entire composition of the pre-war trained personnel army went out of order. Russia lost its western territories, but retained its main industrial, fuel and agricultural base. At the same time, German superiority in artillery, especially heavy artillery, increased, and the narrowness of the Russian railway network became even more obvious.

In August, Nicholas II took command of the troops, appointing an experienced strategist M.V. Alekseev as Chief of the General Staff.

The allies, joined by Italy, did not undertake a single significant operation during this period, confining themselves to large deliveries of arms and coal to Russia.

4.2.4. 1916 "Brusilovsky breakthrough". The German command transferred the main military efforts from the Eastern to the Western Front. The battle began for the fortress of Verdun, which protected the path to Paris. The Italian army was in a difficult position.

The Russian army, which planned to deploy the main offensive in the summer with the forces of the Western Front in Lithuania and Belarus with the support of the Southwestern and Northern Fronts, was forced to change the timing and direction of the main attack. In May, General Brusilov's 8th Army broke through the Austrian positions, pushing the enemy back 120 km. The offensive of the Western Front was suspended to reinforce Brusilov's troops, but German reinforcements allowed the Austro-Hungarian army, which had lost 1.5 million people, to stabilize the front line in Galicia and Bukovina.

The Caucasian army took Erzrum and Trebizond. Romania took the side of the Entente, but was quickly defeated, which lengthened the front line by 500 km.

As a result of the struggle of 1916, the Anglo-French and Italian armies were saved from defeat. England and France in these conditions in 1915-1916. concluded agreements with Russia on its post-war territorial acquisitions in the Baltic states and the future transfer of control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles, as well as Constantinople, to it.

5. Economic situation

5.1. Industry

5.1.1. The volume of industrial production in 1914-1916. grew by 22%. By 1916, the industry was completely restructured, the pre-war armament program was completed. Both large-scale and cooperative and artel production, which worked for defense, developed. With some reduction in "peaceful" light industry, heavy industry produced goods 3 times, and for military orders 10 times more than before the war. The production of cars, armored cars, aircraft began. Domestic electrical engineering and radio industry were created. The lack of shells, rifles and uniforms was no longer observed. Russia in 1916, taking into account the supplies of the allies, fully provided for all the needs of the army and was ready for large-scale offensives in military-technical terms.

Railway construction continued, but the transport network could barely cope with the needs of the front. The supply of the rear deteriorated sharply in the presence of sufficient food supplies.

5.1.2. New forms of industrial organization. An important role in the mobilization of small industry was played by the formed public Zemsky and City Unions (Zemgor), which were primarily involved in organizing medical care, collecting food for the army, etc.

To distribute orders and raw materials in 1915, on the basis of representative organizations of the big bourgeoisie, Military-Industrial Committees arose.

The coordination of all defense activities was carried out by the government through the Special Conferences on defence, fuel, food, transportation, which included representatives of ministries, entrepreneurs and politicians, led by it.

5.2. Agriculture.

More affected. In connection with the mobilization of almost half of the able-bodied agricultural workers, the confiscation of 2.5 million working horses for the army and the occupation of part of the Russian territory, the sown area decreased by 10%, grain harvest - by 20%, meat production - by 70%.

At the same time, thanks to the cessation of grain exports, the adoption of the "dry law" and the introduction in 1916 in a number of provinces of food requisition, there was enough bread and food in the country as a whole. The lack of food in the front-line cities, including the capital, was caused by transport problems.

5.3. Finance.

Military spending was 3 times the state's income, which was seriously reduced due to the ban on the sale of alcohol. The budget deficit was covered by increased money emission, external and internal loans. As a result, the public debt increased by 4 times compared to the pre-war level, surpluses of paper money were formed, and inflation was growing rapidly. In 1914-196. prices have increased by 4-5 times.

6. The development of the socio-political crisis

6.1. In 1914, all sections of society supported the government. Thousands of people demonstrated in support of the war in front of the Winter Palace. Many were seized by anti-German sentiments. St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Workers' strikes have practically ceased (1.5 million strikers in January-July and 35 thousand in August-December).

Political parties, including liberals, supported the war to a victorious end and voted in the Duma in favor of providing war loans. Only the Trudoviks and the Social Democrats abstained, who recognized the need to defend the country. But already in September, Lenin, recalling the words of Marx: “the proletariat has no fatherland,” proclaimed the thesis that the defeat of the autocracy and its army in the war would be a lesser evil for the workers of Russia than its victory.

6.2. In 1915 the political situation changed.

6.2.1. Social movement. The defeats of the Russian army again caused dissatisfaction with the government. The workers' strike movement resumed (600,000 strikers). Peasant unrest began, the number of which, however, was small (177). Hundreds of public unions and committees to help the front, primarily the All-Russian Zemstvo Union and the All-Russian Union of Cities, united in Zemgor, played an increasing role in the socio-political life of the country.

6.2.2. Political parties and the Progressive Bloc. Cadets, Octobrists and moderate rightists blamed the government for the military defeats. Zemstvos and cities demanded the convocation of the Duma. Nicholas II made some concessions, convening the Duma in July and dismissing a number of ministers, including Minister of War Sukhomlinov and Minister of Justice Shcheglovitov.

In August, for the first time, an opposition majority was formed in the Duma - the Progressive Bloc, which united liberals and moderate rightists, headed by the moderate V. Shulgin and the cadet Milyukov. The coalition demanded the formation of a "public trust" government, ie. of the politicians recommended by the bloc, the implementation of political reforms. Although the ministers supported the Duma, the emperor suspended the parliament and replaced the "liberal" ministers. The political crisis seemed to be over.

6.3. But in 1916, anti-government sentiment intensified.

6.3.1. Protests of soldiers, workers and peasants. At the front, desertion increased, discipline weakened, spontaneous fraternization of Russian and German soldiers was carried out. Performances began in the army, including armed ones. Mass workers' strikes broke out (1 million strikers), many of whom put forward political and anti-war slogans (30% of the strikers). In October there was a sharp rise in the strike movement, in December the activity of the proletariat, agitated not only by the left, but also by the liberals. The number of peasant protests increased significantly (294).

6.3.2. United political opposition. The Duma Progressive Bloc, supported by Zemgor, in November 1916 put forward an even more radical demand for the creation of a "responsible ministry" - a government accountable to parliament. Not only the Cadet Milyukov and the Octobrist Guchkov spoke against the government, but even the ardent monarchist Purishkevich. The Progressives who had left the Bloc suggested that they appeal to the people and the army.

6.3.3. autocracy reaction. Nicholas II did not want to give in to the demand of society, only shuffling the composition of the government, which Purishkevich called ministerial leapfrog. None of the 4 chairmen of the Council of Ministers and 6 ministers of the interior, who were replaced in 1915-1916. did not suit the Duma and society.

The extreme right tried to raise the authority of the monarch by removing Grigory Rasputin, who influenced the tsar, a symbol of the decay of the autocracy. On December 16, he was assassinated by a group of high society conspirators. But only repressions followed: the meetings of the Duma were interrupted, the appointed government of N.D. Golitsyn turned out to be even more conservative, the State Council was renewed, headed by I. Shcheglovitov, and the growing strike movement was suppressed.

A clash between the regime and broad sections of society became inevitable.

So, we can conclude that the right relied on the wisdom of the monarch, the liberals developed plans for a palace coup, a few social democrats and socialist-revolutionaries tried to organize the workers. The elements of popular protest, provoked by increased contradictions and an unsuccessful war, as always unexpected for reformers and revolutionaries, overturned all plans, determining Russia's entry into a new era.

Conclusion

The 20th century raised difficult questions for world civilization. One of them was the First World War. It was the result of a crisis in international relations. The peculiarity of the crisis was that for the first time in history it covered all European powers. The war led to an unprecedented militarization of the warring countries. In scale, it had no equal in history. The war, grandiose in terms of military-political and social consequences, lasted 4 years and 3 months, from July 19 (August 1), 1914 to November 11, 1918, involved 38 states (out of 55) with a population of 1.5 billion people, or 87% of the world's population. The human losses in the war were enormous: more than 10 million killed and 20 million wounded and maimed.

The attitude towards the First World War of various classes and parties in the world was not the same. The parties of the Second International supported the governments of their countries. The International has virtually collapsed. There was no unambiguous attitude to the war in Russia either. If the Bolsheviks opposed the war, then the bulk of Russia's political parties supported it. The beginning of the war caused the rallying of Russian society on the basis of the ideals of imperial consciousness and state traditionalism.

A wave of demonstrations with patriotic slogans and appeals swept across the country. IV State Duma voted for military loans. The Russian army was the largest of the armies of the warring countries in terms of numbers. Its soldiers showed courage and heroism, but Russia was not ready for a long war. As a result of heavy fighting and defeats in 1915, half of the Russian army was destroyed. By 1916, at the cost of enormous exertion of forces, Russia had restored the army, and the industry provided it with weapons.

Large losses on the fronts, the prolongation of the war caused discontent in the country. The crisis of power began to acquire an irreversible character. The autocracy was losing the ability to govern the country and wage war.

By the beginning of 1917, of all the countries of the Entente, the position of Russia turned out to be the most difficult. The living conditions of the working people worsened catastrophically. Social tension has led to a radical change in the internal situation. The February Revolution was accomplished and won in Russia. Under the pressure of circumstances, on March 2, 1917, Nicholas II abdicated.

The war pushed Europe into crisis as well. There were revolutions in Germany, Hungary, Slovakia. In 1917-1920. the strike movement gained considerable scope in England and France.

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Thus, I conclude that the First World War had many causes for each country, but nevertheless, some similar causes can be identified:

The countries of the world wanted to redistribute the already established colonial system.

Countries sought to solve the problem of social tension in the country.

Countries wanted to "tear off a bigger piece" from their weakened neighbors.

Countries wanted to test the latest weapons created in previous years.

Countries sought to increase their areas of influence in Europe and the world

The First World War is the first military conflict on a global scale, in which more than 30 countries participated. This is a war between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Italy, Romania, etc.). It lasted approximately 4 years, July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918

The official reason that served as the start of the war was the assassination in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (by a Serbian nationalist, a member of the Young Bosnia organization Gavrilo Princip). However, this is just an excuse. For a long time, the countries have accumulated a lot of claims to each other. At the peak of the aggravation of contradictions between the major powers, the First World War began.

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. capitalism has grown into imperialism. The world was almost completely divided between the major powers. The uneven economic and political development of countries has intensified.

Thus, we can single out the causes of the First World War:

Desire to weaken competing countries in economic and military development;

Accumulated contradictions due to colonies, spheres of influence, markets;

Strengthening nationalist sentiment;

The desire to solve internal problems through war.

However, all these reasons can be combined into one - the competing interests of the largest European powers.

Germany, as an economically developed country, sought to dominate the military, economic, political sphere throughout Europe. Germany sought to defeat England, deprive her of naval power and, since she needed markets, then redistribute the French, Belgian and Portuguese colonies and establish herself in the rich Arabian provinces of Turkey, weaken Russia, tear away the Polish provinces, Ukraine and the Baltic states from her, depriving its natural borders along the Baltic Sea.

In the Entente, G. saw an alliance against herself with the aim of undermining her power.

Austria-Hungary, as a multinational country, was a constant hotbed of instability in Europe. She sought to retain Bosnia and Herzegovina, seize Serbia and Montenegro, establish her hegemony in the Balkans, and take part of the Polish provinces from Russia. She opposed Russia because Russia took on the role of defender of all Slavs in the Balkans and Serbia.

For England, the main goal was to maintain its maritime and colonial power, to prevent Germany from appearing on the world market as a strong competitor, to prevent Germany from claiming the redistribution of colonies, to prevent it from seizing Mesopotamia, Palestine and the lands of Turkey, which were rich in oil. From which Great Britain switched to the policy of forming an anti-German bloc of states. And also A. wanted to take revenge on Germany for supporting the Boers in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. In this connection, Austria had already waged an undeclared economic and commercial war against Germany and was actively preparing in case of aggressive actions on the part of Germany.

France wanted to return Alsace and Lorraine, which Germany took in 1871, i.e. wanted to avenge her defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, wanted to seize the Saar basin and keep her colonies. France was afraid of German aggression, but could not come to terms with those losses in traditional markets due to competition with German goods.

Russia wanted to achieve a free exit of the Black Sea Fleet through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles to the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the annexation of Galicia and the lower reaches of the Neman. Also, she was not satisfied with the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway, it was assessed as an infringement on the rights of Russia in Asia. She wanted to be the main over all the Slavic peoples, therefore she supported the anti-Austrian and anti-Turkish sentiments among the Serbs and Bulgarians in the Balkans. Also, the strengthening of Germany did not suit, because. she began to dictate her terms in Europe.

The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate a state destroyed by the divisions of the 18th century.

Italy, even being in alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning its lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume Italy, which hesitated for a long time between the Triple Alliance and the Entente, ultimately connected its fate with the Entente and fought on its side due to penetration into the Balkan Peninsula .

During the three years of the war, the United States of America occupied a neutral position, profiting from military supplies to both belligerent coalitions. The United States, entering the war (April 1917), intended to dictate peace conditions to the weakened countries, ensuring the world domination of American imperialism.

The First World War was the first event in which many countries took part, when states fought for their interests. As a result of many bloody battles, Germany lost the war. Although Britain ended the war victorious, its position left much to be desired. From an economic point of view, thanks to the debt and the losses that the war entailed, the most pressing problem of the post-war period was the transition from a war economy to a peacetime economy.

30.Versailles-Washington system

The Versailles-Washington System (VVS) is the system of the imperialist world established by the victorious states after the end of the First World War. The basis of this system was the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 and other treaties and agreements concluded at the Washington Conference of 1921-1922.

The Versailles-Washington system made it possible to reduce tension in the post-war period, approved the principles of new relations between peoples, and recognized the need for self-government by the peoples themselves. To develop cooperation and to guarantee peace and security, the League of Nations (LN) was formed.

In 1919-1922, the Versailles-Washington system of international treaties was formed, designed to formally consolidate the results of the First World War.

Peculiarities

Discrimination of the position of the defeated states and Soviet Russia.

Consolidation of the leadership of the USA, Great Britain and France in the new system.

US political isolation from European affairs.

Formation of a number of new sovereign entities of the MOD in Europe

Creation of LN - a tool for maintaining the status quo in the MO system. This tool, actually controlled by France and Great Britain, turned out to be ineffective in the performance of its stabilization functions. This was evidence of the absence of a strong contractual and legal framework for the system.

The world is gradually ceasing to be Eurocentric (the superiority of Europeans), the international system is beginning to turn into a global one.

The decisions of the Paris and Washington conferences laid the foundations of the post-war Air Force. MO. Under the terms of Vers. treaty, Germany was deprived of the status of a great power, its territory in Europe was cut, the colonial empire was liquidated and serious restrictions were introduced in the field of weapons (+ reparations), peace treaties were concluded with Austria, Hungary, Turkey. At Versailles, disarmament issues and the situation in the countries of the Asia-Pacific Region (APR) were not resolved. They decided at a conference in Washington. It resulted in the signing of an agreement between five and nine powers: naval armaments were limited; A. for the first time recognized the equality of its fleet and the US Navy. The sovereignty and integrity of China was proclaimed.

The main goal of the Air Force is an attempt to create a global international. systems. For the first time it is built on the principles of democracy. decision-making by the free will of state-in. Hence the center. the place of the entire Air Force is LN (1st global international organization of free states). The whole problem of the Air Force - each state saw in its own way the international. relations, for example, in the United States, these are “14 points of Wilson” (freedom of the seas of oceans, open interaction of powers, the right of nations to self-determination, etc.). At Europe. states that owned colonies, other vision - there is no principle of self-determination of nations.

The decisions of the Air Force somewhat defused the post-war. tension The decisions testify to a growing understanding of the need to update the principles of the IR: recognition of the right to self-determination. peoples and the rejection of war as a means of resolving conflicts; recognized nezav-Th number of Europe. countries. However, despite these achievements, the system was characterized by contradictions, a cat. led to its collapse and, as a result, to a new world war.

Air Force controversy:

1. A number of leading states are not included in the LN system (USA and USSR). For the victors, Russia was a traitor who made a separate peace with the enemy. Bolshevism aroused hostility. rel. from the European side. countries and marching in Russia civic. the war gave a formal reason not to invite her to conferences;

2. The dominance of England and France. and contempt for small countries Heb., cat. were powerless in LN;

3. Lack of real leverage in LN to carry out its tasks;

4. The charter of the LN defines closed zones where the rules of the Air Force did not apply: zones around America and America itself; British interests. There is no definition of "aggression" and when LN can be included in the destruction of this aggression;

5. The LN regime turned out to be not democratic in terms of the Charter, where they talk about free self-determination. and choosing the path of the district. THOSE. The League recognized the existence of colonies, which means that it violated its own democratic principles. principles. For the peoples of Germany. colonies and the former Osm. the Air Force empire is just another change of ruler. Mandatory territories are no different from colonies, anticolons. free. the movements continued.

By virtue of all this, the Air Force regime was doomed to failure, especially since the b-ba for the glob. leadership in 20-30 is aggravated (+ to it - the appearance of the USSR).

35.The main stages and results of the Second World War

World War II(WWII)- the largest historical event of the 20th century. It lasted for a long time, covered almost all continents and oceans, 61 states participated.

The reasons: WWII arose as a result of the uneven development of countries, which caused sharp contradictions between them, and opposing coalitions are formed. The states of the "axis countries" (Gitl coalition) were dissatisfied with the existence of the Versailles-Washington system as a world order, hence the desire to redistribute the world, seize colonies, and expand the sphere of influence. On the other hand, the VV order was not an effective way to protect against such aspirations, and by the beginning of the 1930s it practically did not work. The attempt to create a system of collective security failed (English and French pursued their own goals - they pursued a policy of "appeasement of the aggressor", in order to negotiate with Germany on the terms of mutual concessions and send Germany to the East). Each country pursued its own. goals and WWII was the result of a purposeful activity of a small group of states - aggressors.

Objectives of the parties: German: defeat of the USSR, create a colony. empire, to achieve the worlds of the state; Jap.: the capture of China., parts of the USSR and the countries of the Asia-Pacific region; It: expand spheres of influence in the Middle. sea, in northern and eastern Africa, in the Balkans and Bl.V.

In terms of character, WWII differed from WWI: WWI - positional, in a cat. the defense was stronger than the attack; in WWII, tanks and aircraft were widely used, which made it possible to break through the enemy’s defenses. The war became maneuverable, fighting. actions are more dynamic.

Stages:

1e . September 1, 1939 - June 21, 1941, September 1, 1939 to the territory of Poland. England and France declared war on Germany. Until May 1940, A. and F. there were no hostilities with the enemy, therefore a “strange war”. And G. occupied several more countries. (chapter of Luxembourg, Belgium, Holland). Then the capture of Fr. and section. it into 2 parts. (for and against) On May 10, Churchill came to A.. The period of the "strange war" is over. Then air raids on the cities of England. Creation of triplets. Pact 1940 (G. Ya. and I. - an agreement on the division of the world); Eng. VS It fought in S. Africa. 1939 - Non-Aggression Pact (or Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact)

2e . June 22, 1941 - November 1942. June 22, 1941 - attack on the USSR. The entry into the war of the USSR (its first victory was the battle for Moscow, the offensive of the German troops on Stalingrad, the defense of the Caucasus.). Formation of the anti-Hitler coalition. December 7, 1941 after the tragedy at the Pacific naval base Pearl Harbor (because of Ya.), + USA. Fighting. actions in the north. and east. Africa.

3e. November 1942 - the end of 1943 (radical change) the loss of the strategic initiative of G., the superiority of the anti-Hitler coalition in the economic, political and moral aspect. On the Eastern Front, the Soviet Army - victories at Stalingrad and Kursk. In Africa, the liberation of several countries. Tehran Conf. (late 1943) - Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, the opening in Europe in May 1944 of the Second Front

4e. late 1943 - May 9, 1945, the liberation of the western regions of the USSR, the countries of Western Europe. The Yalta Conf. (February 1945) needed to finally defeat Germany, the question of creating the UN. The result of the joint efforts was the complete and unconditional surrender of Germany on May 8, 1945.

5e May 9 - September 2, 1945 will finish. defeat of Germany and Japan. Blmbardirovki Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Potsdam Conf. - denazification, demilitarization, democratization, decentralization).

Results: 1. WWII led to a change in the balance of power in the world. There are 2 superpowers that determine the balance of power.

2. The collapse of the state-in the "axis";

3. Changing state borders, in particular in Europe;

4. Ideological split, emergence. Social camps;

5. Huge human casualties of WWII gave rise to quality. new trend in the region of capitalism: folding. GMK, appeared. TNK, cat-e tied cap. world in one mechanism);

6. The destruction of the colonial system and the emergence of new ones. state-in (British Empire). Fash and right-winger. groups left the polit. arenas. Asc. the prestige of communes; fold-Xia multipart. Systems.

German problem

Germany

By the end of the Second World War, the economic system of Germany had the following features:

1. Centralized management of prices, wages and rent (1936)

2. Regulation of the consumer market, labor market, housing market and agricultural products market.

3. Centralized distribution of raw materials and investment goods between sectors of the economy.

4. The predominance of private ownership of the means of production.

After WW2, Germany was divided into two independent states: the FRG and the GDR. The difficult state of the German economy, in addition to military devastation, was influenced by the dismantling of equipment of industrial enterprises, adopted by the decision of the Potsdam Conference of the Heads of Government of the victorious powers

Carefully prepared economic reform was carried out simultaneously with the monetary reform, price reform, restructuring of centralized management.

In 1949, the year the GDR was founded, the young state lacked entire industries, and those that did exist were very underdeveloped. At the cost of incredible efforts, the working people managed to overcome the most pernicious disproportions during the first years of construction. Entire branches of industry were created anew with the help of the USSR. In subsequent years, with the help of the USSR, the working people created numerous new enterprises. These were very difficult years of industrial construction.

The principle of the democratic state made it possible to express the will of the citizens. The focus of the basic law is a person, because the state should serve the people, and not dominate them. The political system of Germany is determined by 4 principles of the state: democratic; federal; legal; social.

After the end of the war, at the Potsdam Conference, it was decided to eliminate the monopolies that stood behind Hitler's back. In West Germany, this decision was put into effect in the form of their "unbundling": the gigantic trust was divided into a number of independent companies.

Despite the negative trends in the country's economy after the unification, Germany remains one of the leading EU countries. The main reasons for the dynamic economic development of Germany:

1) high level of consumer demand;

2) increase in employment and wages;

3) expansion of the German domestic market with five new

federal lands;

4) the rapid development of scientific and technological progress;

5) the predominant development of export-oriented industries.

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1. The causes of the First World War (August 1914 - November 1918) and the problems of the post-war peace settlement.

Causes and cause of the First World War

Ukrainian lands in 1914

International Social Democracy at the Beginning of the First World War

Events 1917 - 1918 End of the war.

- International relations in the post-war period

2. German, British and American schools of geopolitics.

- "Founding Fathers" of geopolitics

National Schools in Geopolitics: British Geopolitical School, American Geopolitical School, German Geopolitical School

1. CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR (August 1914 - November 1918) AND PROBLEMS OF POST-WAR PEACE SETTLEMENT

Causes and causes of the First World War

The war was fought between the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). During the war, Turkey (1914) and Bulgaria (1915) joined the Triple Alliance, Italy (1915), Romania (1916), and the USA (1917) joined the Entente.

Reasons for the war: the desire of all countries to seize new territories, divide colonies and eliminate competitors; the desire of countries to divert the attention of the people from internal problems; each country pursued its own goal:

Germany sought to expand its possessions and establish dominance in world politics.

France wanted to return back Alsace and Lorraine, as well as capture the Saar coal basin.

Austria-Hungary had territorial claims to Serbia, Montenegro, Romania and Russia, and also sought to suppress the national liberation movement.

England sought to destroy Germany as its main rival in trade, and also to take oil-rich lands from Turkey.

Italy sought to expand its dominance in the Balkan Peninsula.

Russia wanted to capture Constantinople, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, as well as stop the revolution brewing in Russia.

Reason for war was the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife by the Serbian nationalist Gavrila Princip.

Ukrainian lands in 1914

Ukraine in the plans of the warring countries was of particular importance:

ü Germany pursued the goal of defeating Russia, tearing Ukraine away from it and annexing it to the Great German Empire. In addition to it, annex the Baltic states, Belarus and the Caucasus.

ü Russia sought to annex Western Ukraine, and thus push its border to the Carpathian Mountains.

Eventually: Ukrainians, divided between empires, were forced to fight each other (there were 3.5 million Ukrainians in the Russian army, and 250 thousand in the Austrian army).

International Social Democracy at the Beginning of the First World War

At the end of the 19th century the Social Democrats had a supranational body - the 2nd International.

The February Revolution took place in 1917. Initially, the interim government enjoyed the support of the people, who expected that it would solve 2 main problems of Russia: the end of the war and the land issue. But the interim government announced that Russia would wage war until victory, since there were several months left before victory, they received American loans, it was impossible to violate the treaty, and land reform was postponed until the end of the war (they feared mass desertion).

This was fatal news.

The February Revolution was the reason for the US entry into the First World War. At the beginning of the war, the United States was gaining ground in Latin America, selling raw materials to both blocs. The US wanted to crush Germany and establish hegemony. After the revolution, when Russia weakened, the United States entered the war in April 1917.

In 1917 - the October Revolution. In April 1917, Lenin arrived in Petrograd. In order to get from Switzerland through Germany to Russia, he agrees with the German General Staff that, having come to power, he will end the war.

Massive propaganda against the provisional government. The failure of the July offensive of the Russian army in 1917. Kerensky made an attempt to defeat Germany. A. Brusilov was made supreme commander in chief. Brusilov's plan was unique. But the Bolsheviks sent an agitator to each regiment, half of the regiments refused to go on the attack.

In March 1918, negotiations will take place in Brestlitovsk (peace with Germany).

Losses of Russia in the First World War (1918) - 2,300,000 people.

The Bolsheviks came to power thanks to propaganda. By the end of the First World War, politicians began to think that war was not the way to solve problems. By the end of the war, the Lloyd George Peace Declaration (eng. premier) was created; "14 points of Wilson" (Jan. 1918).

The structure of the post-war world: freedom of the seas and freedom of trade, autonomy for the peoples of Turkey and Austria-Hungary, independent Poland, the liberation of Russia from foreign troops, the supranational body "League of Nations" (this document largely laid the foundations of the post-war world, but the understanding of this document came later ).

In the autumn of 1918, Germany tried to make an attempt to win the war (revolution in Russia). The Germans almost reached Paris, but Germany lost. There was a revolution in Germany, and Austria-Hungary fell apart. On November 11, Germany capitulated.

During the war, there were many secret agreements - they divided the world. Both blocs tried to win neutral countries over to their side. In 1914 - 1915. there is an expansion of the composition of participants in the First World War. Japan and Italy agree to fight on the side of the Entente; Turkey - for Austria-Hungary and Germany.

Events 1917 - 1918 End of the war

Russia was the first to not withstand the “war” and “exhaustion”, where a revolution took place in February 1917, but the revolution was incomplete. The Bolsheviks took advantage of this, and on October 25 (November 7), 1917, a Bolshevik coup took place in Petrograd, as a result of which the Provisional Government was overthrown and the Bolsheviks headed by V. Lenin came to power. The Bolsheviks, having come to power, immediately adopt 2 basic laws:

A new government was formed - the Council of People's Commissars, headed by Lenin.

In December 1917, Russia concludes a truce with Germany, and on March 3, 1918, a separate peace was concluded between Russia and the Quarter Union in Brest-Litovsk (this is an agreement when one of the parties that were part of the coalition signs peace with the enemy without the knowledge and consent of others coalition members). By signing this peace, Russia had to accept a number of humiliating and unfavorable conditions.

The revolution in Russia gave impetus to revolutions in other countries. Revolutionary events begin in Austria, where they had a national liberation character. Independent states were created here.

On November 3, 1918, a revolution begins in Germany. As a result of revolutionary events in Germany, the monarchy was overthrown and the Weimar Republic was proclaimed.

Having learned about the revolutionary situations in Germany, Austria-Hungary signs its surrender. On November 12, 1918, a revolution takes place in Austria. The overthrow of Charles I of Habsburg was announced and the Republic of Austria was formed. And before that, the capitulation was signed by Bulgaria.

Turkey signed the capitulation in October.

On November 11, 1918, at a station in France in the Copien Forest, in the staff car of Marshal Ferdinand Foch, between the Entente and Germany, a truce was concluded for a period of 36 days, which meant the end of the Great War.

Consequences of the war

1. The war led to great destruction and loss of life.

2. The United States (USA) entered the world stage as a contender for world domination.

3. The war prompted revolutions that overthrew the monarchies.

4. The war covered territories over 4 million square kilometers. The total cost of the war was $1 trillion. The total human losses are about 10 million killed and 20 million wounded.

International relations in the postwar period

After the First World War, the Versailles-Washington system of international relations was established - a new version of the balance of power.

In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in Paris. In the Asia-Pacific region - the Washington Conference.

Changes in the balance of power in Europe after the war: 1) Germany was defeated. Before the First World War, it was one of the leading states, claimed hegemony, but now it is no longer there. 2) Austria-Hungary, the “prison of peoples”, collapsed and a number of independent states appeared in its place: Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia (until 29 it was called the kingdom of the CXC), Poland. 3) England and France took the leading positions in Western Europe. 4) The gradual involvement of the United States in European affairs, claimed a leading position, a world creditor. 5) The emergence of Soviet Russia, a fundamentally new political regime.

Based on these realities, a new balance of power had to be built in Europe.

Versailles laid the foundations for World War II. The victors, despite the political realities, did not seek to create truly democratic relations with the vanquished. "We are stronger - our interests are taken into account." All the difficulties of the post-war system fell on the undefeated peoples.

The charter of the League of Nations was signed: the goal is to establish relations between states on the basis of the rejection of wars, but this was not implemented, this was not noted in the agreement with the vanquished. Soviet Russia found itself outside the world community. For the Entente, Russia was a traitor who made a separate peace with the enemy. But on the other hand, Russia was also to blame. The October Revolution of 1917 was not carried out in accordance with the Marxist tradition - Russia was not an industrialized country where the majority of the population is the working class. In Russia, by the time of the revolution, there were 3,000,000 working class (2% of the population). Lenin introduced the theory: “The roar in an industrialized country will be suppressed because of the wide possibilities of bourgeois governments. In countries that are poorly developed industrially, a revolution is possible, but it is impossible to build socialism, therefore, immediately after the revolution in Russia, a world revolution must be carried out. Then the developed countries will help Russia build socialism.” Immediately after the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia, an instrument for carrying out the world revolution (1919) was created - the COMINTERN, its idea (according to Lenin) is a single international Communist Party with a center in Moscow and branches in all European countries. Each branch is tasked with coming to power in its country.

In 1920, the Civil War was almost won by the Soviet army. Lenin decides that it is necessary to try to establish communist regimes in Europe by force (similar to the Napoleonic wars). The campaign of the Red Army in Europe - the Polish campaign of Tukhachevsky. The Red Army was supposed to take Warsaw, Berlin, and then Paris. At the very walls of Warsaw, the French came to the aid of the Poles. The Red Army was defeated - "a miracle on the Vistula." Riga peace with Poland.

The Treaty of Versailles rudely resolved territorial issues, as well as numerous conflicts in the future: territories with a German population were taken away from Germany.

There were sharp contradictions between the winners: what to do with Germany. The positions of France and England + the United States diverged. France sought to nullify German influence in European affairs. France sought to keep Germany out of the League of Nations. France sought to weaken Germany with the help of reparations. France sought to weaken Germany by territorial rejections. England (the United States supported England) - "Memorandum of Lloyd George of Fontainebleau" (1919). There is the essence of the British (American) position: with regard to Germany, a condescending position is needed; Germany must not be brought to its knees, since the future tranquility of Europe depends on the strength of Germany; Germany can be a counterbalance to Soviet Russia. England needed a strong Germany as a counterweight to France in continental Europe.

The Versailles system provided France with leadership in Europe. But the Rhineland was not annexed to France - the Rhineland was demilitarized, if German troops were sent there, then France has the right to occupy the Rhineland. At first, the French wanted 226 billion gold marks, then the amount was reduced to 132 billion.

Weak point of the Versailles system - 2 great powers were not included in the system of international relations (Russia and Germany). Consequently, Russia and Germany drew closer. In 1922, the Rappala Treaty was signed between Germany and Soviet Russia.

In general: the French were in the lead under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was disarmed. The Weimar Republic and Germany were humiliated.

The signing of the treaty in Rappalo was preceded by the following circumstances. Russia sought to enter the system of international relations, but, as a rule, this aroused strong objections. At the insistence of Soviet Russia, an international economic conference was convened in Genoa. The main question on it is royal debts. By the way, it was a lot of money. The European states wanted to include Soviet Russia, subject to the payment of the debt. The Germans were afraid that Soviet Russia, having settled its problems with the Entente, would demand its share of reparations.

After the fiasco in Genoa, Soviet Russia offered Germany to sign an agreement on the establishment of diplomatic and economic relations. In the West, this agreement is called the “pajama agreement”. Very soon, 30% of the foreign trade of Soviet Russia passes to the share of Germany. Soviet Russia gets the opportunity to use German technology. Germany even provided small loans to Soviet Russia. The main German benefit from interaction with Soviet Russia is that Germany has placed its military schools and military factories here. Our officers also studied in German military schools on the territory of the USSR.

In 1925, the most important stage in the development of the Versailles system took place. The Locarno Conference was held, in which England, France, Italy, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Germany took part. The United States did not officially participate, but invisibly took care of individual participants. England and the USA were interested in convening a conference in order to change the situation in their favor, to crush France. In 1923, a document appeared: Austin Chamberlain (England Foreign Secretary) - its author. This document assumed a new attitude towards Germany, taking into account the USSR: someday the USSR will upset the European balance, attack Europe, and therefore it is necessary to involve Germany as a counterbalance in active life in Europe, give it freedom of action, make it a permanent member of the League of Nations and remove restrictions on military sphere. After the release of this document, England begins to support Germany in a dispute with France.

In 1923, the Ruhr Crisis occurred (the main recipients of reparations were France and Belgium). Germany sabotages the payment of reparations year after year. In 1923, France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr (German territory) and do not want to leave until they are paid. England prompted Germany to pursue a policy of passive resistance on the Ruhr. Then France herself will feed her army. The French left the Ruhr.

The consequence of the Locarno Conference was: a sharp weakening of the French position in Europe. By itself, France could not single-handedly make decisions in Europe. Germany was never allowed to have heavy weapons.

The attitude of the USSR to the decisions of Locarno. Germany became a member of the League of Nations and could now participate in aggression against the USSR. The activation of Soviet foreign policy began. Chicherin seeks the signing of a neutrality treaty between the USSR and Germany. In general, an acute crisis begins in relations between Western Europe and the USSR. In the USSR, the factor “we are alone, there are enemies around” was specially exaggerated. The establishment of a totalitarian system in the USSR.

Thus, Locarno gave the Germans a lot, thanks to the tough position of the British. England was sure that Germany would be forever grateful to her. They thought that Germany would pursue a pro-British policy. This was a serious psychological mistake by the British. They did not understand the mentality of the Germans, the ruling circles of Germany: Germany's horns were broken in the First World War, and this entered the psychology of the Germans forever. Germany lost the First World War, when not a single enemy soldier (almost) entered German territory (the Russians, however, entered the territory, but they were quickly driven out). Many Germans were sure that if it were not for the Volkshtotz (“stab in the back”), not for the revolution, then there would be a victory. The Germans believed that the victory was stolen, the spirit of the nation was not broken. The British were mistaken in thinking that Germany would be grateful. Germany did not want to be the continental sword of England. Activation of Germany's foreign policy until Hitler came to power.

2. GERMAN, BRITISH AND AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF GEOPOLITICS

Geopolitics is one of the most influential intellectual trends of the 20th century, defining the nature of research in such areas as the foreign policy and military strategy of states, national interests, analysis and forecasting of local and global international conflicts.

There is no more or less generally accepted definition of geopolitics, which is associated with the relative youth of this scientific discipline and the complexity of the object of its study. critics believe that such uncertainty stems from the parascientific nature of geopolitics, mixing real facts and concepts already studied by economic and political geography, political science, the theory of international relations, military strategy, etc., with unverifiable mythological constructions and ideological attitudes.

Usually the word "geopolitics" is used in two senses - narrow and wide. In a narrow sense, it is a discipline with its own method, research tradition and scientific "classics" that studies government policy dependency, First of all, external from geographical factors. The word "geopolitics" is made up of two Greek roots: "geo"- the earth and what is connected with the earth, "politicos"- what is connected with the "polis" - the state, citizenship. In a broad sense, this concept means consciously pursued or spontaneously formed policy of states, to the extent that it is related to geographic and territorial factors. It is assumed that geopolitics as a scientific discipline studies, first of all, geopolitics in the broad sense of the word.

The German geographer is considered the founder of modern geopolitics Friedrich Ratzel(1844–1904). In his works "Laws of Spatial Growth of States" and "Political Geography" he formulates the foundations "spatial approach" to the study of politics. Ratzel's "biogeographical" concept is based on the concept of evolutionism popular in the second half of the 19th century. He understands the state as one of the forms of life on Earth, arising from the interaction of "Soil" and "People". For sustainable life and development of the state, it needs "living space"(Lebensraum), therefore, the expansion of the state, the expansion of its territory seemed to Ratzel natural and inevitable processes, during which the most powerful states enter into a "struggle for existence." According to Ratzel, the main line of this struggle is the confrontation of two types of "organism-states" - maritime and continental. Having formulated this opposition, Ratzel lays the foundation for the mythologeme of confrontation between "Land" and "Sea", which is central to many areas of geopolitics.

Myself term"geopolitics", or "geographical politics", was first used by a Swedish geographer and statesman Rudolf Kjellen(1864–1922), who developed the ideas of Ratzel. In his most famous work "Great Powers" and a number of others, he proposes the concept of geopolitics as a scientific discipline in the system of political sciences that studies "the state as a geographical organism in space", along with other disciplines that study the impact on the state of economic, demographic, social and economic imperious, political, factors. The composition of geopolitics according to Kjellen includes topopolitics- studying the pressure on the state of its external environment, morphopolitics- studying the geometric shape of the state territory and its convenience, and physiopolitics- studying the composition of the territory, its natural resources, etc. Geopolitical factors, along with economic, demographic and form of government, are the most important in the emergence power of the state(one of the central concepts for early geopolitics), a force without which the state is doomed to death. Chellen also developed the concept of "great powers", which he divided into simply great and "world powers", each of which has great power and has the advantages and disadvantages of its geopolitical position, seeking to eliminate these shortcomings in the course of geopolitical confrontation. Yes, for Russia characterized by great expansion territorial solidity, but it has a limited freedom of movement its access to warm seas is limited. The British Empire, by contrast, enjoyed high freedom of movement and enormous expansion, but lacked territorial solidity. Departing from "biologising", Kjellen in his works paid great attention not only to the territorial "body" of the state, but also to its people's "soul". Thus, he outlined two lines in the development of geopolitical thought - based on the primacy of the territorial factor and geographical determinism, and based on the primacy of the properties of "geopolitical subjects" - peoples.

National Schools in Geopolitics

Since geopolitics as a science directly affects the real national interests of certain states, its development almost immediately went in line with national schools, the concepts of which were predetermined by the real geopolitics of states, primarily the great powers. However, political and ideological principles were formulated and creatively expressed in the conceptual language of the new science, so it is incorrect to speak of geopolitics only as a servant of political interests. However, since the importance of ideological creativity in geopolitics is great, the "author's" concepts created by talented researchers and thinkers who managed to express the essence of national geopolitical mythology play a huge role in it.

BRITISH The geopolitical school, before its marginalization after the loss of its empire by Britain, geopolitics owes the emergence of the most influential, despite the flurry of criticism, global geopolitical concept. It was formulated in 1904 in the work "The Geographical Axis of History" by the English geographer and politician Halford Mackinder(1861–1947). Subsequently, Mackinder's concept was changed under the influence of the events of the world wars in the works "Democratic Ideals and Reality" (1919) and "The Completion of the Globe and the Acquisition of Peace" (1943). Mackinder proceeded from the idea of ​​the world as a geographical and political whole, in which, especially after the "Columbian era" of the Great Geographical Discoveries and the global expansion of Europe, the key is the confrontation between land and sea powers. Mackinder distinguishes two macrogeographical zones of the planet - the oceanic hemisphere (Western Hemisphere and the British Isles) and the continental hemisphere - or World Island, a huge landmass from Eurasia and Africa, which is the main zone of human settlement. The central zone of the World Island is heartland, a zone that is practically inaccessible to marine penetration. This is, first of all, the territory of the Russian Plain, Western Siberia and Central Asia. heartland is the source of the concentration of the "continental force", which is able to control the entire World Island, seizing control of inner crescent- areas of the Island accessible to sea invasion and being both a protective buffer of the Heartland and an object of expansion of maritime powers. The maritime powers themselves rely on outer crescent, which includes America, Britain, Japan and South Africa. Located in the Heartland, the practically invulnerable "middle state" is a solid, but little mobile structure, around which a more lively political circulation of the countries of the inner and outer crescents takes place. In its half-century modifications, Mackinder's theory, which has become the leading myth of world geopolitics, has retained an invariable motive for fearing the threat to maritime powers posed by the state of the Heartland, usually associated with Russia. Therefore, Mackinder builds the concept of global domination, in which control of the heartland provides an unconditional geopolitical advantage to any power. In Western geopolitics, the development of the topic of limiting expansion from the Heartland and establishing control over it occupies a huge place - first of all, this concerns the American geopolitical school.

AMERICAN the geopolitical school was formed under the influence of the ideas of the naval historian Admiral Alfred Mahan(1840–1914). In his famous works The Influence of Sea Power on History (1660-1783) and America's Interest in Sea Power, Mahan advanced the concept of "sea power" as a factor providing unconditional geopolitical superiority. It is the provision of the country with naval bases and a merchant fleet, as well as the power of the navy, that make it a great power that decides the fate of the world, and maritime civilization provides more favorable conditions for development. Seeing in history the confrontation between maritime and land powers, Mahen proposed using the "Anaconda principle" as a global geopolitical strategy - strangling the enemy by sea blockade of his strategic facilities.

In concept Nicholas Spikeman(1893-1944), the ideas of Mahan and Mackinder were integrated into a coherent geopolitical and geostrategic concept "from the American point of view". Developing geopolitics within the framework of the concept of US strategic security, Spykman put forward the principle "integrated control over the territory", which should be carried out by America around the world in order to prevent the strengthening of geopolitical competitors. Adhering, following Mackinder, to the idea of ​​confrontation between sea and land, the Heartland-USSR and oceanic America, Spykman, however, considers the geopolitical axis of the world not the immovable Heartland, but the confrontation zone - Rimland(rimland), the border zone of Land and Sea, stretching along the borders of the Heartland through Europe, the Near and Middle East, India and China. The Heartland Power is exerting pressure on this zone, trying to unite it under its control, while the United States must exercise containment policy and, following the precepts of Mahen, strangling the continental power, saturating Rimland with its military bases and creating military-political alliances there. The Spykman concept influenced the principles of American foreign policy and especially strategy in the Cold War, primarily in the 1950s and 60s (the Truman Doctrine, etc.).

The development of intercontinental ballistic missiles and the withdrawal of the USSR from the “encirclement ring”, the conquest of positions in Cuba, Africa, etc., led to a reinterpretation of the American geopolitical concept in the spirit of the principles "dynamic containment" carried out throughout the geopolitical field, and the growth of the power of the countries of the "third world" led to a gradual rejection of rigid dualism in American geopolitics. Influenced by ideas Saul Cohen the concept of regional geopolitics based on the hierarchical principle is being developed. Cohen identifies four geopolitical hierarchical levels: geostrategic spheres- Maritime and Eurasian, which were of paramount importance for the former geopolitics; geopolitical regions- relatively homogeneous parts of geopolitical spheres that have their own specifics - such as Eastern Europe, South Asia, etc.; great powers - USA, Russia, Japan, China and integrated Europe, which have their own key territories; new powers - countries of the third world, such as Iran, which have entered into force relatively recently, and which do not yet have a decisive influence on the global geopolitical order. Finally, the fifth hierarchical level is subnational territories -"gates", international centers serving communications between states. The collapse of the USSR and the cessation of the rigid centering of world politics on the confrontation between Land and Sea led to the destabilization of the world system and its regionalization. The regions are being integrated, and they are gradually becoming the leading geopolitical level, forming a "multipolar world". However, this multipolar world is increasingly stratified into levels of development, to differentiate which Cohen proposes to use the concept entropy- the level of uncertainty, chaos, loss of dynamic energy. Regions with a low level of entropy include the countries of the West and, to a lesser extent, the Heartland, the Middle East; a very high level of entropy distinguishes "black" Africa and Latin America. It is high-energy and low-entropy countries that, according to Cohen, form the global geopolitical balance, while high-entropy countries act as a constant source of problems and instability - they form "arc of crises", in the words of the well-known political scientist Zbigniew Brzezinski (who cannot be classified as a geopolitician proper).

The "regionalist" concept proposed by Cohen provides two opportunities for its further development - the idea of ​​the dominance of low-entropy highly developed countries leads to the formation of the concept of a "unipolar world", the centers of which are the United States, Europe and Japan as three forces with the same political system, highly developed economy and interests that exclude their war against each other. American politician Air Straus put forward the concept global unipole based on friendliness, cooperation and common democratic values. According to Straus, the strength of this unipole depends on the entry of Russia into it, without which the base for global unipolar leadership becomes limited. The geopoliticians of this trend are characterized by the idea of ​​eternity or longevity of the geopolitical order that has developed after the end of the Cold War, the idea of ​​the “end of history”, according to the well-known aphorism of Francis Fukuyama. The opposite direction is associated with the growth of "defense consciousness" in the United States, a statement of the fact that regionalization leads to the loss of the global geopolitical dominance of the United States, the emergence of opposing centers. It found its clearest expression in the concept clash of civilizations American political scientist Samuel Huntington. According to him, our time is characterized by a tendency to desecularization- a return to the religious identity of large regions, which means that from now on the leading role is played by local civilizations that oppose the global civilization of the West according to the principle the West and the Rest(West and Others). An illustrative model for illustrating Huntington's concept is the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. Under these conditions, the West will have to make great efforts to maintain its dominance in opposition to several competing civilizational centers at once.

GERMAN geopolitics , founded by Ratzel, was virtually destroyed after the Second World War, under the slogan of denazification, as providing justification for Nazi military expansion. Ended up in prison and committed suicide by its main representative Karl Haushofer(1869–1946), magazine publisher Zeitschrift für Geopolitik and author of numerous monographs and articles. Haushofer developed Ratzel's concept of "living space" in relation to interwar Germany, the truncated borders of which seemed to him unnatural and disfiguring the national life of the Germans. Sufficient space for Germany could be "Middle Europe" (Mitteleuropa), the concept of which was proposed by Ratzel. Haushofer, expanding the zone of Germany's geopolitical claims, put forward the idea "pan-regions"- large spaces into which the world is divided according to the "meridional" principle, with the center of each region in the northern hemisphere and the periphery in the southern. At first, Haushofer singled out three pan-regions - America, centered on the USA, Europe - the Middle East-Africa, centered on Germany, East Asia and the Pacific region, centered on Japan, later he "allocated" a zone for Russia - the Russian Plain and Siberia, Persia and India. Adapting to the needs of Nazi foreign policy, Haushofer moved on to the concept "Continental bloc" between Germany, the USSR and Japan against the maritime powers. This block was supposed to ensure the strengthening of Germany in the confrontation with England as the main enemy.

A kind of successor to the traditions of the German geopolitical school is the intellectual movement of European "new right", which was significantly influenced by the philosopher and jurist Carl Schmitt(1887–1985), who wrote a number of essays on "nomos of the earth", a principle that integrates the territorial geopolitical organization of space and the features of its state structure, legal system, social and spiritual warehouse. Schmitt contrasts the "traditional", military, imperial and ethical order of the "nomos of the earth", symbolized by the House, and the "modernist", commercial, democratic and utilitarian order. "nomosa of the sea", whose symbol is the Ship. Thus, the geopolitical opposition of the Sea and the Land is brought to the level of historiosophical generalization. Modern anti-American "new right" - Jean Triar, Alain Benois, Robert Stoykers et al. develop these ideas of Schmitt, contrasting the globalist “marine” order established by the United States with the idea of ​​a Eurasian continental order constructed by them, based on the USSR-Russia and Germany. Through the philosopher Alexander Dugin, their ideas have a great influence on Russian conservatives.

LIST OF LITERATURE USES:

1. Shchedrina I.E. "History of Ukraine. Dictionary-reference»

2. www.gumer.info

3. www.politizdat.ru

The first countries involved in the First World War were Serbia and Austria-Hungary. The event that led to the beginning of the conflict was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand. After that, the government of Austria-Hungary negotiated for a long time about what response actions to take against Serbia. In addition, the Austrian side was worried about the expansion of Serbian territory in the period 1912-1913. as a result of the Balkan wars, as well as the threat that came from the southern Slavs. Another point haunted them: whether Russia would come out on the side of Serbia. To prevent this, it was necessary to enlist the support of Germany. For the latter, Austria-Hungary was the only possible ally, so in no case could it be left in a difficult situation.

In 1913, Russia was unable to support Serbia, which needed its help to maintain the situation in the Adriatic, and in 1914, without substituting the expected shoulder, Russia risked weakening its influence in the Balkans.

The causes and nature of the First World War lay in a tense international situation. Germany understood that war could not be avoided. Only the timing was unknown. After all, it is necessary to choose the right moment before rearmament has taken place in Russia, military reorganization in France, and a profitable naval treaty between Britain and Russia has not been signed. Therefore, the German side could regard the outbreak of hostilities as the only way to achieve world domination.

The cause of the First World War was and in which all the major powers were involved. No state was frightened by the military power of others, so this fact cannot be considered as a deterrent. Countries sought to expand their own production of weapons and were not particularly in awe of the military program of opponents. It would seem that Britain had to retreat before the might of the German fleet, but she wished to increase her influence and gain naval superiority at any cost.

Therefore, by 1914, the causes of the First World War were very serious, they set the stage for the realization that hostilities could not be avoided. France, as a result of the war of 1870, remained dissatisfied with the loss of the territories of Alsace and Lorraine, while Germany, on the contrary, was satisfied with its position, feeling military superiority over other European states. In addition, the end of the 19th century was marked by an understanding of the need for national independence in a number of countries, which threatened the continued existence of the Ottoman and Habsburg empires and, as a result, led to instability in the international system.

The causes of the First World War, according to the followers of the Marxist theory, were antagonistic sentiments between the Prussian junker and the Russian landowner. A fairly long list of other prerequisites was added to them: the struggle for iron and coal, communication routes, spheres of influence, colonies, national contradictions. So, for example, French President Henri Poincaré spent his childhood in the territory of Lorraine, which was occupied by the Germans. This fact also could not but be reflected in future historical events.

The causes of the First World War are also hidden in the following points. Russia faced difficulties in moving goods through the Dardanelles, as a result of which it suffered significant economic damage. She really needed a free exit and entrance from the Black Sea, since the main export of grain passed through Constantinople. By 1904, an alliance called the Entente was created between Russia and France. A few years later, Russia signed an agreement with England on the delimitation of spheres of influence in such countries as Afghanistan, Persia and Tibet. Despite the agreement reached, the Entente in the period of 1907 could not be considered a military bloc, which could not be said about such a status, the Entente acquired only in 1914 from the moment of signing a tripartite agreement between Russia, England and France on the waiver of the obligation to conclude with opponents.

To solve which historians are trying today.

Many point out that the connection between the assassination by Serbian nationalists on June 28, 1914 of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand and the beginning of a terrible and bloody massacre does not seem at all obvious. Even if we consider the murder of the heir not as a reason, but as a pretext for war, this does not bring clarity. What insoluble contradictions existed between Russia and Germany that forced them to plunge into the abyss of war? Neither Russia nor Germany had any signs of territorial disputes, intractable political problems, mutual claims, but each of the countries was drawn into opposing blocs that were destined to clash on the battlefields.

Among the causes of the First World War, it is customary to point to:

• struggle for territories and spheres of influence;
• German militarism;
• disruption of the balance of power in Europe;
• the military plans of each side;
• nationalism.

None of the European politicians expected that the war would become so bloody, everyone believed that on Christmas Day 1914 the soldiers would celebrate the victory at home. This assumption was unfounded, since on a continent literally stuffed with weapons, war could not be an easy walk for trophies under any circumstances.

On the eve of the war, there were still opportunities for maintaining peace - they were provided by broad international cooperation in all areas of life - in politics, economics, culture. A dense network of railways connected the most remote corners of Europe and brought them closer than ever before. Before Europe opened the prospect of unprecedented prosperity, at the turn of the century the standard of living of people became much higher than before, which deprived the war of any meaning. Politico-legal guarantees for the preservation of peace were taking shape: the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 approved on the initiative of the Russian Emperor Nicholas II. determined the rules for resolving military conflicts. The practice of relations between states began to include arbitration, mediation and impartial examination of conflict situations by third countries or the International Court of Justice.

International rivalry gave rise to the beginning of the 20th century. a lot of problems in the relationship between different states. Chief among them was the Anglo-German rivalry on the world stage. Great Britain was losing its leading position, while Germany, meanwhile, was increasing its power and quickly turning into one of the leading powers in the world.

Since the war of 1870-1871. tensions persisted in Franco-German relations. Germany sought to further weaken its continental rival, while France waited for an opportune moment to return Alsace and Lotharingia. The establishment of a German military mission in the capital of the Ottoman Empire threatened the vital interests of most powers, and primarily Russia, for which foreign control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles was unacceptable. Russia's interests were also affected by the strengthening of the positions of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, which had long been the sphere of Russian interests. The irreconcilable opponents of Austria-Hungary among the Balkan peoples were the Serbs, who turned into the main obstacle to the Austrian expansion.

Many historians call the First World War imperialistic, because the powers that started it had imperialist interests: the complete military defeat of the enemy, undermining his economic power, seizing the most strategically important territories. But there was also a deeper problem behind this: who would dominate Europe - Germany or the Entente? To solve this problem, war was inevitable.

Most of the discussions of politicians and historians about the decisions that paved the way for the war are focused on strategic calculations, they do not take into account the enthusiasm of the masses, which served as an impetus for all countries to mobilize. The patriotic upsurge, the romantic enthusiasm for the war, the emotional pressure in all countries in August 1914 were unprecedented. The German emperor Wilhelm II, undoubtedly, took into account public sentiments, agreeing to support Austria-Hungary. The harsh Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, was met in Berlin with enthusiastic demonstrations in support of the ally. During the seven crisis days at the end of July, there were continuous nationalist rallies in front of the Kaiser's residence. When the latter returned from Potsdam to Berlin, his motorcade was overwhelmed by a crowd calling for war. In such an atmosphere, key decisions were made to start it.

On the same days, similar manifestations took place in London, Paris, St. Petersburg, and Vienna. Much of the crowd's enthusiasm was fueled by the feeling that the war meant the long-awaited national unity and the overcoming of the split between bourgeoisie and proletarians, Protestants and Catholics, workers and peasants. “No one knows anyone, but everyone is embraced by one all-consuming impulse: war, war and a sense of unity,” an eyewitness of those events described the feeling of the crowd in Berlin. material from the site

The public of each of the powers contributed to the outbreak of war, and politicians at the most crucial moment did not find the courage to resist the onslaught of the crowd. Violent nationalism, which stimulated the creation of gigantic armies and fleets, which considered war not a catastrophe, but a confirmation of masculinity - this is precisely the mood that became dominant at the beginning of the 20th century. Children played soldiers, and for adults, military service was considered a matter of honor, giving life a new meaning.