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General characteristics. Humanism
- The Renaissance is completely occupied by two centuries - the 15th and 16th.
- The Renaissance (Renaissance) is usually divided into two periods: Southern (Italy, 14th – 15th centuries) and Northern (France, England – 15th-16th centuries).
- "Renaissance" is a term that came into use in the 19th century, largely due to Jacob Burckhardt's work Renaissance Culture in Italy (published in Basel in 1860).
- In Burckhardt's work, the Renaissance appeared as a specifically Italian phenomenon, characterized by individualism, cult social life with emphasized sensuality, secular spirit with a tendency towards paganism, liberation from the power of authorities, special attention to history, philosophical naturalism and extraordinary taste for the arts.
- The term “Renaissance” cannot be considered an invention of historians of the 19th century for the simple reason that humanists clearly used (persistently and quite consciously) such expressions as: resurrect, restore shine to antiquities, renew, give new life, revive the ancient world, etc. d. They contrasted the new era of light in which they lived with the Middle Ages as a period of darkness and ignorance.
- The philosophical thinking of this period can be characterized as anthropocentric.
- During the Renaissance, the individual acquires much greater independence, he increasingly is not this or that union, but yourself. From here grows a person’s new self-awareness and his new social position: pride and self-affirmation, awareness of his own strength and talent. The Renaissance individual tends to attribute all his achievements to himself. Man becomes his own creator. A person realizes himself as the creator of his own life and destiny.
- The term "humanism" has several meanings.
- 1. It is close to the concept of “artist” (artist), indicating teachers and teachers of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy. In addition, already in the 14th century, in order to designate these disciplines, they said “humanitarian disciplines”. The term Humanitas for Latin authors meant approximately what the Hellenes expressed with the term paideia, i.e. the upbringing and education of a person.
- 2. Love for a person. In the Renaissance, this is the love of creativity in man.
- It is in creativity that man is like God.
- The Southern Renaissance emphasized reason.
- The new worldview of the Renaissance also manifests itself in man's relationship to nature. Although the philosophy of nature is still associated with medieval philosophy, and the interpretation of the question of the relationship between God and the world remains central, a characteristic feature of this period is its anti-scholastic orientation. Since medieval philosophy was based on the philosophy of Aristotle, the natural philosophy of the Renaissance turns to the ideas of Platonism and Neoplatonism.
- One of the most profound thinkers and representative of Neoplatonism of the Renaissance was Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464). His most significant work is “On Learned Ignorance.”
- Cusansky brings God closer to nature, ascribes divine attributes to nature, and above all, infinity in space. As you know, the central concept of Neoplatonism is the concept of “One”. In Plato and the Neoplatonists, the One is characterized through the opposition to the “other,” the many, the non-united. Cusansky rejects ancient dualism and concludes that nothing is opposite to the One, the One is everything.
- Pantheism - God is everything. By studying nature you can know God.
- The idea of an infinite world was developed by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who made a revolutionary revolution in astronomy and laid the foundation for the heliocentric system. His main idea is the rejection of the idea of the Earth as the center of the Universe, reducing it to the category of other planets. At the same time, in astronomy, anthropocentrism in views on the essence of the world, which has now opened up to us in all its rich diversity, began to gradually disappear, a world governed by objective laws, independent of human consciousness and not subordinate to human goals.
- The pantheistic philosophy of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was the apogee of the development of philosophical thought of the Renaissance. It embodies humanism, spontaneous dialectics and the greatness of nature. For J. Bruno, “God is the infinite in the finite, he is in everything and everywhere, not outside us, but as the most present.” The One, the central category of his philosophy, is both the cause of being and the very existence of things; essence and existence are identified in it.
- Galileo Galilei (Italian: Galileo Galilei; February 15, 1564, Pisa - January 8, 1642, Arcetri) - Italian physicist, mechanic, astronomer, philosopher and mathematician, who had a significant influence on the science of his time. He was the first to use a telescope to observe celestial bodies and made a number of outstanding astronomical discoveries. Galileo is the founder of experimental physics. With his experiments, he convincingly refuted Aristotle's speculative metaphysics and laid the foundation of classical mechanics.
- During his lifetime, he was known as an active supporter of the heliocentric system of the world, which led Galileo to a serious conflict with the Catholic Church.
- Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (lat. Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, Dutch. Gerrit Gerritszoon; October 28, 1469, Gouda, a suburb of Rotterdam, Burgundian Netherlands - July 12, 1536, Basel, Swiss Union) - the largest scientist of the Northern Renaissance, nicknamed the “prince of humanists.”
- Essays:
- “Weapons of the Christian Warrior” (1504) and “Proverbs” (1508),
- "Praise of Folly" (1509, ed. 1511),
- treatise “On Free Will” (1524).
- Pedagogical essays:
- “On the initial education of children”, “On the good manners of children”, “Conversations”, “Method of teaching”, “Way to write letters”.
- Philosophy for Erasmus is knowledge, as it was for Socrates and other ancient authors. It is a wise understanding of life, especially the practical prudence of Christian life. Christian wisdom does not need to be complicated by syllogisms, and it can be gleaned from the Gospels and the Epistles of the Apostle Paul.
- Martin Luther (German Martin Luther November 10, 1483, Eisleben, Saxony - February 18, 1546, ibid.) - Christian theologian, initiator of the Reformation, translator of the Bible into German.
- Luther's works:
- "Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans" (1515-1516),
- “95 Theses on Indulgences” (1517),
- “28 theses for the debate in Heidelberg” (1518), works 1520: “To the Christian nobility of the German nation”, “On the reform of Christian education”, “On the Babylonian captivity of the Church”, “On the freedom of the Christian”, “On the slavery of the will” (against Erasmus, 1525).
- Luther's teaching contains three components:
- 1) the doctrine of the radical justification of man by faith;
- 2) the doctrine of the inerrancy of Scripture as the only source of truth;
- 3) the doctrine of universal worship and the associated freedom of independent interpretation of Scripture.
- Niccolò Machiavelli (Machiavelli, Italian Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli; May 3, 1469, Florence - June 21, 1527, ibid.) - Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician (served as Secretary of State in Florence), author of military theoretical works . He was a supporter of strong state power, to strengthen which he allowed the use of any means, which he expressed in the famous work “The Sovereign.”
- Machiavelli is one of the few figures of the Renaissance who, in his works, raised the question of the role of the personality of the ruler. He believed, based on the realities of contemporary Italy, which suffered from feudal fragmentation, that a strong, albeit remorseless, sovereign at the head of a single country was better than rival appanage rulers. Thus, Machiavelli raised in philosophy and history the question of the relationship between moral norms and political expediency.
- Thomas More (English Sir Thomas More, better known as Saint Thomas More; February 7, 1478, London - July 6, 1535, London) - English thinker, writer, humanist, canonized saint of the Catholic Church.
- Thomas More called his main work “A Golden Little Book, as useful as it is amusing, about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia.”
- First of all, in Utopia private property is abolished and all exploitation is destroyed. In its place, socialized production is established. In “Utopia” the attitude towards all religions is tolerant, and only atheism is prohibited, for adherence to which one was deprived of citizenship rights.
- Tommaso Campanella (Italian: Tommaso Campanella, at baptism received the name Giovanni Domenico, Italian: Giovanni Domenico; September 5, 1568 - May 21, 1639, Paris) - Italian philosopher and writer, one of the first representatives of utopian socialism.
- The population of the “City of the Sun” leads a “philosophical life in communism,” that is, they have everything in common, not excluding their wives. With the destruction of property, many vices are destroyed in the city of the Sun, all pride disappears and love for the community develops.
- The people are governed by a supreme high priest, who is called the Metaphysician and is chosen from among the wisest and most learned citizens. To assist him, a triumvirate of Power, Wisdom and Love was established - a council of three leaders of the entire political and social life of the country subordinate to the Metaphysician.
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Periodization and features of the philosophy of the Middle Ages
In the history of philosophy of the Middle Ages, there are two main periods: Patristicism (2nd-8th century) (Tertullian, Augustine) Scholasticism (9th-14th century) (Thomas Aquinas) Features of the philosophy of the Middle Ages are: Subordinate position of philosophy (“handmaiden of Theology”) Theocentrism (God is the highest reality and the cause of everything) Creationism (the creation of the world by God from nothing) The dogma of Divine revelation as the path of knowledge The principle of free will in the understanding of man
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Medievalism
Augustine Aurelius is one of the most prominent thinkers of the patristic period, the author of many works, including the famous “Confessions”. In his work “On the City of God,” he viewed the course of history as a struggle between two kingdoms—Earthly and Heavenly. A person has a choice. He can either choose the Earthly City and “live according to the flesh,” forgetting about God, but then his destiny after death is to be punished along with the devil. Either a person chooses the Heavenly City, love for God, and then after death he will reign together with God. Augustine justified the existing order in society, where a husband rules his wife, parents control his children, and masters control his slaves, since it was established by God. Augustine substantiated the idea of the dominance of the church over the state, the pope over the monarchs. Augustine Aurelius (354-430)
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Thomas Aquinas - systematizer of scholasticism, author of "Thomism" - the official doctrine of the Catholic Church. Aquinas believed that both faith and reason participate in knowledge and can give true knowledge, but if reason contradicts faith, then it gives untrue knowledge. There are things in the world the knowledge of which is accessible to reason, but there are also things that are unknowable to reason (the creation of the world, original sin, the trinity of God, etc.). Philosophy can only explain what is knowable by reason; what is unknowable is the subject of theology. He gave five proofs for the existence of God. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) Philosophy of the Middle Ages
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Dispute about the nature of universals
Nominalism Nominalists - Roscelin, Pierre Abelard argued that only individual things really exist. General concepts arise in the process of cognition and do not exist outside the human mind. Realism The largest representatives: Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, Eriugena believed that universals (for example, “man,” “animal”) exist really, objectively, independently of human cognition, along with specific people and animals. According to realists, anyone who cannot understand how several individuals make up one person will not understand how one God can be one in three persons. Universals are extremely general generic concepts, the subject of dispute is the relationship between general generic and specific concepts and the ontological status of general concepts
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Main directions in philosophy of the Renaissance (14th-16th centuries)
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Renaissance philosophy
N. Kuzansky created a pantheistic doctrine, according to which there is no difference between the world and God, the world is one, and God and the Universe are one and the same. He derived the law of the coincidence of opposites - God and nature, reason and faith, essence and existence, maximum and minimum, etc. He illustrated his ideas with examples from mathematics: a circle with an infinite increase in radius turns into a straight line, etc. N. Kuzansky (1401-1464)
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D. Bruno, a supporter of the teachings of Copernicus, argued that our Universe is infinite, has no center, and consists of many galaxies. According to Bruno, God does not exist separately from the Universe; the Universe and God are one whole (Pantheism). Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) Monument to G. Bruno in Rome
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Topic: Philosophy of the Renaissance and Modern Times LKSAIOT Teacher Natalia Viktorovna Goryainova
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PLAN: Main features and directions of philosophy of the Renaissance Philosophy of Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) Philosophy of Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) Philosophy of Michel Montaigne (1533-1592) Political philosophy of the Renaissance
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1. The main features and directions of philosophy of the Renaissance The Renaissance (Renaissance) begins in the 14th century. in Italy and in the 15th century. in other European countries and continues until the beginning of the 17th century.
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The main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance are the following: Humanism - the justification of the intrinsic value of man, his rights and freedoms. Humanism (from the Latin humanus - humane) emphasizes that the ultimate goal of philosophy should be man as the crown of creation. Aestheticism is the leading role of art. Denotes the high role of creativity in the Renaissance. sonnets by F. Petrarch, short stories by J. Boccaccio, the dramaturgy of W. Shakespeare, the novels of M. Cervantes, the sculptures of Michelangelo, the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci - all these are classic examples of the unprecedented rise of art. Freethinking is liberation from dogmatic medieval thinking. Freethinking implies freedom of human thought. God gave man free will so that he could solve practical and theoretical problems on his own, without relying on higher powers. Anthropocentrism - man is at the center of the worldview. Anthropocentrism (from the Greek anthropos - man) of the revival means that the place of God in the center of the universe is taken by man. he becomes an independent creative principle, almost equal to God;
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The main directions of Renaissance philosophy refer to Greek and Roman models Direction Ancient model Representatives of the Renaissance Natural philosophy Pre-Socratics Nicholas of Cusa, G. Galileo, Leonardo da Vinci, J. Bruno Skepticism Pyrrho M. Montaigne, Erasmus of Rotterdam Political philosophy Plato, Aristotle T. More, N. Machiavelli The very name “Renaissance” emphasizes that the philosophers of this time tried to find justification for their search in the free and democratic spirit of antiquity, reviving classical antiquity. The main directions of Renaissance philosophy refer to Greek and Roman models
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Natural philosophy returns to the ideas of nature and the Cosmos. The predecessor of Italian natural philosophy, Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), puts forward the idea of pantheism - he identifies nature and God. Since the Universe, like God, is infinite, it cannot be known using limited logic - absolute truth can be endlessly approached, but it cannot be mastered. In place of logic is “scientific ignorance” - symbolic thinking, where opposites merge.
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Example: A B a Line a is by definition infinite. Segment AB is finite. However, AB can be divided into a different number of parts (from two to infinity). Consequently, AB is also infinite within itself. Since oo = co, straight line a is equal to segment AB. If we symbolically imagine that the straight line is God, and the segment is man, then man becomes equal to God and the Cosmos.
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The human soul is inexhaustible and endless, therefore it can be represented as the whole Universe (microcosm), equal to the physical Universe (macrocosm). The pantheism of Nicholas of Cusa influenced the further development of science - the study of the Universe received its justification: one can study God not only through revelation, but also through the study of nature.
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He put forward the idea of “scientific ignorance” (“knowledge about ignorance”). With the help of senses, reason and intellect we can know things, but our knowledge of finite things always goes beyond its limits, encountering the unknown. The basis of knowledge is the opposition between finite knowledge and absolute, unconditional knowledge, i.e. ignorance of this unconditional (divine). A person can acquire unconditional knowledge only symbolically, including through mathematical symbols. A person is not a part of the whole, he is a new whole, an individuality.
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An important contribution to the study of nature was also the heliocentric model of the solar system (the Earth revolves around the Sun), which replaced the geocentric one (the Sun revolves around the Earth). The names of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), who stand at the origins of European experimental science, are known here.
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Skepticism is a reaction to religious dogma and a form of creative free-thinking. The Dutch philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) in his famous book “In Praise of Stupidity” ridicules the false morality and erudition of the scholastics, preferring the stupidity of “living life” to it: “In human society everything is full of stupidity, everything is done by fools and among fools. If anyone wants to rebel alone against the entire universe, I will advise him to flee to the desert and there, in solitude, enjoy his wisdom.”
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He called a person to a way of spiritual life that would combine freedom, clarity, peacefulness, and the ability not to go to extremes. He considered gross fanaticism, ignorance, readiness for violence and hypocrisy to be unacceptable traits of a person’s spiritual appearance. He called for a return to the origins of Christianity, to revive early Christian ideals. All phenomena of social life, all things are characterized by duality, the presence of opposing properties. In the socio-political field, he was a supporter of a strong monarchy, as he hoped that monarchs would always show enlightenment and humanism
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The motto of the French thinker Michel Montaigne (1533-1592) was the words “It is certain that nothing is certain.” Montaigne expressed his skepticism in his work “Experiments.” “I believe that the answer to almost every question is: I don’t know.” “At the beginning of all philosophy lies wonder, its development is inquiry, its end is ignorance.” “Let the conscience and virtues of the student be reflected in his speech and know no other guide than reason.”
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When Montaigne calls for focusing all our thoughts and intentions on ourselves and our own good, he expresses one of the main ideas of the Renaissance, according to which man with his feelings and thoughts becomes the center of the universe. Montaigne needs an appeal to a person in order to express doubt about the symbol of religious faith.
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Political philosophy of the Renaissance Plato's dreams of an ideal state are continued in the tradition of utopianism. Its origins are Thomas More (1478-1535), author of the book “Utopia” (the word “utopia” means “non-existent place”). Here he describes a non-existent state where everything is based on the principles of equality and justice - property is common, everyone works the same and everyone owns an equal amount of goods.
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Philosophy of the Renaissance Developed by: history teacher of KSU “Secondary School No. 21 of the city of Temirtau” Baltabaev Marat Bopyshevich
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The Renaissance Chronologically, the Renaissance occupies two centuries - the 15th and 16th centuries. In the 15th century interest in man prevails, and the thought of the 16th century. also applies to nature. This is a time of major economic change - laying the foundations for later world trade and the transition from the guild organization of craft to manufacture. On this basis, national monarchies are formed. The spiritual sphere of society's life is characterized by the unfolding of secularization processes (liberation from religion and church institutions) in economics, politics, philosophy, science, and art.
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RENAISSANCE SINCE 19th century In relation to this era, the French term “Renaissance” was established. The Renaissance is the revival of ancient culture, way of life, way of thinking and feeling, but not the identity of antiquity. Antiquity was treated as an ideal - admired aesthetically, but without losing the distance between it and reality.
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Renaissance philosophy This is a set of philosophical views that arose and developed in Europe in the 15th-17th centuries, which were united by an anti-church and anti-scholastic orientation, pronounced anthropocentrism, ideas of humanism, life-affirming optimism, faith in man, his capabilities and creative potential. The philosophy of the Renaissance developed a dialectically integral idea of the inextricable unity of man and nature, the Earth and the endless cosmos.
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The main features of anthropocentrism and humanism are the predominance of interest in man, faith in his limitless capabilities and dignity, individuality; Opposition to the Church and church ideology, denial not of religion itself, of God, but of an organization that has made itself a mediator between God and believers, as well as scholasticism; secularization.
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Main features A fundamentally new pantheistic worldview, an actively transformative attitude towards the world; Interest in social problems, society, state; Wide dissemination of the idea of social equality; artistic and aesthetic orientation. .
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Basic concepts Anthropocentrism is a worldview that evaluates the world through man, considering him the main value of the universe. Heliocentrism is a belief system that considers the Sun to be the center of the universe. Epistemology is the science of knowledge. Humanism - (from the Latin Humanus) - a movement that arose towards the end of the Middle Ages, opposing scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church, striving to substantiate the ideal of man on the basis of the newly discovered works of antiquity - the highest cultural and moral development of human abilities combined with gentleness and humanity, a system of views that express recognition of the value of man as an individual, his rights to freedom, happiness, and equality, respect for the principles of justice and mercy as norms of relations between people, the struggle to create conditions for the free development of human creative powers and abilities. Methodology is a way of understanding existing reality, based on a system of universal principles and laws. Natural philosophy is the philosophy of nature, the peculiarity of which is a predominantly speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its integrity; in the Middle Ages, the doctrine of nature, free from subordination to theological speculation. Pantheism is a philosophical doctrine that brings the concepts of “God” and “nature” as close as possible with a tendency to identify them. Naturalistic pantheism spiritualizes nature, endowing it with divine properties and, as it were, dissolving them in nature. Secularization is liberation from religion and church institutions.
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Main directions Natural philosophy Methodology Epistemology Politics Social problems
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Natural philosophy (XVI – XVII centuries) Speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its integrity. An attempt, based on scientific discoveries, to debunk the teachings of the Church about God, the Universe, the cosmos and the foundations of the universe, about the foundations of the worldview. (N. Copernicus, D. Bruno, G. Galileo, L. da Vinci) Pantheism - identification of God and the world. The Christian God loses his transcendent, extra-natural character, he seems to merge with nature, and the latter is deified.
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Natural philosophy (XVI – XVII centuries) Main features: justification of a materialistic view of the world (usually in the form of pantheism); - the desire to separate philosophy from theology; putting forward a new picture of the world in which God, nature and the cosmos are One, and the Earth is not the center of the universe; the statement that the world is knowable and, first of all, thanks to sensory knowledge and reason, and not to Divine revelation.
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Natural philosophy (XVI – XVII centuries) Lenardo da Vinci - Italian artist and scientist, inventor, writer, musician, one of the largest representatives of the art of the High Renaissance, a vivid example of a “universal person”. Galileo Galilei - Italian physicist, mechanic, astronomer, philosopher and mathematician, who had a significant influence on the science of his time. He was the first to use a telescope to observe celestial bodies and made a number of outstanding astronomical discoveries. Nicolaus Copernicus - Polish astronomer, mathematician, mechanic, economist, canon of the Renaissance. He is best known as the author of the heliocentric system of the world, which marked the beginning of the first scientific revolution. Giordano Bruno - Italian Dominican monk, philosopher and poet, representative of pantheism. As a Catholic monk, Giordano Bruno developed Neoplatonism in the spirit of Renaissance naturalism
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Socio-political philosophy Philosophy of the Reformation Philosophy of the utopian socialists Political philosophy PROBLEMS - the state, its structure, mechanism of government; principles of social structure; relationships between government institutions, churches, and believers.
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Natural philosophy (XVI – XVII centuries) The problem of movement The problem of matter The driving force is an intelligent principle inseparable from matter (pantheism) Concepts Pantheistic Atomistic
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Methodology Metaphysical trends (XVI century) Dialectical trends (XV-XVI centuries)
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Epistemology Cognizability of the world Recognition of the influence of the external world on the senses as a source of knowledge Approval of the role of reason and logic Denial of innate ideas
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Social problems Renewal of the social ideal based on divine natural law Denial of private property Equal distribution of material goods Social labor
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Politics Tyranny-fighting direction (republican) Monarchist direction (absolutism)
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It became widespread in Europe in the 14th century. 15th century Center - Italy. In its genre, humanistic philosophy merged with literature and was presented in an allegorical form (Dante Alighieri, Francesca Petrarca, Lorenzo Valla, Erasmus of Rotterdam). - anti-church and anti-scholastic orientation; - the desire to reduce the omnipotence of God and prove the intrinsic worth of man; - anthropocentrism – special attention to man, glorification of his strengths, greatness, capabilities; - life-affirming optimism. Features of the philosophy of humanism
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PHILOSOPHY OF HUMANISM Erasmus of Rotterdam - The largest scientist of the Northern Renaissance, nicknamed the “prince of humanists.” Contributed to the return of the literary heritage of antiquity to cultural use. He wrote mainly in Latin. Francesco Petrarca - Italian poet, head of the older generation of humanists, one of the greatest figures of the Italian Proto-Renaissance. Dante Alighieri - Great Italian poet, thinker, theologian, one of the founders of the literary Italian language, political figure.
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FAMOUS HISTORIANS, HUMANISTS Lorenzo Valla - Italian humanist, founder of historical and philological criticism, representative of the historical school of scholars. He substantiated and defended ideas in the spirit of Epicureanism. Leonardo Bruni - Italian humanist, writer and historian, one of the most famous scientists who graced the century of the Italian Renaissance.
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The idealistic direction, which aimed to strictly systematize Plato's teachings, eliminate contradictions from it and its further development (Nicholas Cusansky, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Giambattista Vico). - proposed a new picture of the world, in which the role of God decreased and the role of initial (in relation to the world and things) ideas increased; did not deny the Divine nature of man, but at the same time considered him as an independent microcosm; - called for a rethinking of a number of postulates of previous philosophy and the creation of an integral world philosophical system that would embrace and harmonize all existing philosophical directions. NEOPLATONISM
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CHRISTIAN NEOPLATONISM Giovanni Pico della Mirandola - Italian thinker of the Renaissance, representative of early humanism. Nicholas of Cusa - cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, the greatest German thinker of the 15th century, philosopher, theologian, encyclopedist, mathematician, church and political figure. Giambattista Vico - Italian philosopher, founder of the philosophy of history and ethnic psychology. Author of the famous "New Science".
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Criticism of the ideology of medieval Catholicism, contrasting the authority of the Bible with the authority of the Church as a mediator between man and God. (Martin Luther, Thomas Munzer, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin) Reformation XVI-XVII centuries.
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