What is unique about the surface of Mars? Brief summary. Surface of the red planet. Some large areas of the surface of Mars

New surface images Mars , taken by the Mars Global Surveyor in December 2000, show layers of sediment that likely formed underwater in the distant past.

A group of specialists engaged in image research Mars received by the Mars Global Surveyor station, believes that these layers of sedimentary rocks indicate that once surface Mars was covered with numerous lakes and shallow seas . In Martian craters, rows of sediments are clearly visible, which could hardly have formed without the participation of water. Such layered rock structures are widespread on Earth in places where lakes once existed.

The photographs (see photographs in the “Image Gallery” section) show the western part of the deep gorge of the large Martian canyon Valles Marinaris. The homogeneous, repeating structure suggests that deposition occurred regularly. The same structures found on Earth are usually the result of long-term sedimentary layering of rocks that occurs underwater.

Areas covered with sedimentary layers are scattered throughout the surface Mars. They are mainly located within craters such as Western Arabia Terra, Terra Meridiani, Hellas and in the crevices of the great canyon Valles Marineris. Scientists compare these layers to similar terrestrial structures in the southwestern United States, such as the Grand Canyon and the Painted Desert in Arizona.

Researchers do not exclude another option for the formation of layered structures. In the distant past, Mars had a denser atmosphere with more dust. Frequent dust storms could lead to the formation of such structures, similar to fossilized sediments. It is necessary to continue research in order to solve the mystery of their origin.

While many of the layered deposits in craters and crevices on Mars appear as stepped cliffs made of similar materials, other layers have smooth, rounded outlines with alternating light and dark stripes. An example of this is the southern Holden Crater, which is 141 km wide. The Uzboi Vallis valley adjoins it on the southwestern side. Not far from this valley in the crater, the cameras of the Mars Global Surveyor station captured rounded inclined structures consisting of alternating light and dark stripes.

Surface topography

Telescopic research Mars discovered features such as seasonal changes in its surface. This primarily applies to the “white polar caps,” which begin to increase with the onset of autumn (in the corresponding hemisphere), and in the spring they “melt” quite noticeably, with “warming waves” spreading from the poles. It has been suggested that these waves are associated with the spread of vegetation over the surface Mars, however, later data forced us to abandon this hypothesis.

A significant part of the surface Mars represents lighter areas (“continents”) that have a reddish-orange color; 25% of the surface are darker “seas” of gray-green color, the level of which is lower than that of the “continents”. The elevation differences are quite significant and amount to approximately 14-16 km in the equatorial region, but there are also peaks that rise much higher, for example, Arsia (27 km) and Olympus (26 km) in the elevated Tarais region in the northern hemisphere.

Observations Mars satellites detect distinct traces volcanism and tectonic activity- faults, gorges with branching canyons, some of them are hundreds of kilometers long, tens of them wide and several kilometers deep. The most extensive of the faults - “Valley Marineris” - near the equator stretches for 4000 km with a width of up to 120 km and a depth of 4-5 km.

Impact craters on Mars are shallower than those on the Moon and Mercury, but deeper than those on Venus. However, volcanic craters reach enormous sizes. The largest of them - Arsia, Acreus, Pavonis and Olympus - reach 500-600 km at the base and more than two dozen kilometers in height. The diameter of the crater at Arsia is 100, and at Olympus - 60 km (for comparison, the largest volcano on Earth, Mauna Loa on the Hawaiian Islands, has a crater diameter of 6.5 km). The researchers came to the conclusion that the volcanoes were active relatively recently, namely several hundred million years ago.

The hope of people to find “brothers in mind” rose with renewed vigor after A. Secchi in 1859 and, especially, D. Sciparelli in 1887 (the year of the great confrontation) put forward a sensational hypothesis that Mars is covered with a network of man-made canals periodically filled with water. The appearance of more powerful telescopes, and then spacecraft, did not confirm this hypothesis. Surface Mars It appears to be a waterless and lifeless desert, over which storms rage, raising sand and dust to a height of tens of kilometers. During these storms, wind speeds reach hundreds of meters per second. In particular, the “warming waves” mentioned above are now associated with the transfer of sand and dust.

Mars is the fourth planet in our solar system and the second smallest after Mercury. Named after the ancient Roman god of war. Its nickname "Red Planet" comes from the reddish hue of the surface, which is due to the predominance of iron oxide. Every few years, when Mars is in opposition to Earth, it is most visible in the night sky. For this reason, people have observed the planet for many millennia, and its appearance in the sky has played a large role in the mythology and astrological systems of many cultures. In the modern era, it has become a treasure trove of scientific discoveries that have expanded our understanding of the solar system and its history.

Size, orbit and mass of Mars

The radius of the fourth planet from the Sun is about 3396 km at the equator and 3376 km in the polar regions, which corresponds to 53% And although it is about half as large, the mass of Mars is 6.4185 x 10²³ kg, or 15.1% of the mass of our planet. The axis tilt is similar to that of Earth and is equal to 25.19° to the orbital plane. This means that the fourth planet from the Sun also experiences the change of seasons.

At its greatest distance from the Sun, Mars orbits at a distance of 1.666 AU. e., or 249.2 million km. At perihelion, when it is closest to our star, it is 1.3814 AU away from it. e., or 206.7 million km. The Red Planet takes 686,971 Earth days, equivalent to 1.88 Earth years, to orbit the Sun. In Martian days, which on Earth are equal to one day and 40 minutes, a year lasts 668.5991 days.

Soil composition

With an average density of 3.93 g/cm³, this characteristic of Mars makes it less dense than Earth. Its volume is about 15% of the volume of our planet, and its mass is 11%. Red Mars is a consequence of the presence of iron oxide on the surface, better known as rust. The presence of other minerals in the dust ensures the presence of other shades - gold, brown, green, etc.

This terrestrial planet is rich in minerals containing silicon and oxygen, metals and other substances that are usually found in rocky planets. The soil is slightly alkaline and contains magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorine. Experiments conducted on soil samples also show that its pH is 7.7.

Although liquid water cannot exist on it due to its thin atmosphere, large concentrations of ice are concentrated within the polar ice caps. In addition, the permafrost belt extends from the pole to 60° latitude. This means that water exists beneath most of the surface as a mixture of its solid and liquid states. Radar data and soil samples confirmed the presence also in mid-latitudes.

Internal structure

The 4.5 billion-year-old planet Mars consists of a dense metallic core surrounded by a silicon mantle. The core is made of iron sulfide and contains twice as many light elements as the Earth's core. The average thickness of the crust is about 50 km, the maximum is 125 km. If we take into account that the earth's crust, the average thickness of which is 40 km, is 3 times thinner than the Martian crust.

Current models of its internal structure suggest that the core has a radius size of 1700-1850 km and is composed primarily of iron and nickel with approximately 16-17% sulfur. Due to its smaller size and mass, the gravity on the surface of Mars is only 37.6% that of Earth. here it is 3.711 m/s², compared to 9.8 m/s² on our planet.

Surface characteristics

Red Mars is dusty and dry from above, and geologically it closely resembles Earth. It has plains and mountain ranges, and even the largest sand dunes in the solar system. The highest mountain, the Olympus shield volcano, and the longest and deepest canyon, the Valles Marineris, are also located here.

Impact craters are typical elements of the landscape that dot the planet Mars. Their age is estimated at billions of years. Due to the slow rate of erosion, they are well preserved. The largest of them is the Hellas Valley. The circumference of the crater is about 2300 km, and its depth reaches 9 km.

Gullies and channels can also be discerned on the surface of Mars, and many scientists believe that water once flowed through them. Comparing them with similar formations on Earth, it can be assumed that they were at least partially formed by water erosion. These canals are quite large - 100 km wide and 2 thousand km long.

Moons of Mars

Mars has two small moons, Phobos and Deimos. They were discovered in 1877 by astronomer Asaph Hall and bear the names of mythical characters. Following the tradition of taking their names from classical mythology, Phobos and Deimos are the sons of Ares, the Greek god of war who was the prototype of the Roman Mars. The first of them personifies fear, and the second - confusion and horror.

Phobos is about 22 km in diameter, and the distance to Mars from it is 9234.42 km at perigee and 9517.58 km at apogee. This is below synchronous altitude, and the satellite takes only 7 hours to orbit the planet. Scientists estimate that in 10-50 million years, Phobos may fall to the surface of Mars or disintegrate into a ring structure around it.

Deimos has a diameter of about 12 km, and its distance to Mars is 23455.5 km at perigee and 23470.9 km at apogee. The satellite makes a full revolution in 1.26 days. Mars may also have additional satellites, the sizes of which are less than 50-100 m in diameter, and there is a ring of dust between Phobos and Deimos.

According to scientists, these moons were once asteroids, but then they were captured by the planet's gravity. The low albedo and composition of both moons (carbonaceous chondrite), which is similar to asteroid material, support this theory, and Phobos' unstable orbit would seem to suggest a recent capture. However, both moons' orbits are circular and in the plane of the equator, which is unusual for captured bodies.

Atmosphere and climate

The weather on Mars is due to the presence of a very thin atmosphere, which consists of 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen, as well as traces of oxygen and water. It is very dusty and contains particulate matter measuring 1.5 microns in diameter, which turns the Martian sky dark yellow when viewed from the surface. Atmospheric pressure varies between 0.4-0.87 kPa. This is equivalent to about 1% of the Earth's at sea level.

Due to the thin layer of gaseous shell and greater distance from the Sun, the surface of Mars warms up much worse than the surface of the Earth. On average it is -46 °C. In winter it drops to -143 °C at the poles, and in summer at noon at the equator it reaches 35 °C.

Dust storms are raging on the planet, which turn into small tornadoes. More powerful hurricanes occur when dust rises and is heated by the Sun. The winds intensify, creating storms whose scales are measured in thousands of kilometers and their duration is several months. They effectively hide almost the entire surface area of ​​Mars from view.

Traces of methane and ammonia

Traces of methane were also found in the planet's atmosphere, the concentration of which is 30 parts per billion. It is estimated that Mars should produce 270 tons of methane per year. Once released into the atmosphere, this gas can only exist for a limited period of time (0.6-4 years). Its presence, despite its short lifetime, indicates that an active source must exist.

Possible possibilities include volcanic activity, comets, and the presence of methanogenic microbial life forms beneath the planet's surface. Methane can be produced through non-biological processes called serpentinization, involving water, carbon dioxide and olivine, which is common on Mars.

Express also detected ammonia, but with a relatively short lifetime. It is not clear what produces it, but volcanic activity has been suggested as a possible source.

Planet exploration

Attempts to find out what Mars is began in the 1960s. Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviet Union launched 9 unmanned spacecraft to the Red Planet, but all of them failed to reach their target. In 1964, NASA began launching Mariner probes. The first were Mariner 3 and Mariner 4. The first mission failed during deployment, but the second, launched 3 weeks later, successfully completed the 7.5-month journey.

Mariner 4 took the first close-up images of Mars (showing impact craters) and provided precise data on atmospheric pressure at the surface and noted the absence of a magnetic field and radiation belt. NASA continued the program with another pair of flyby probes, Mariner 6 and 7, which reached the planet in 1969.

In the 1970s, the USSR and the United States competed to see who would be the first to launch an artificial satellite into orbit around Mars. The Soviet M-71 program included three spacecraft - Kosmos-419 (Mars-1971C), Mars-2 and Mars-3. The first heavy probe crashed during launch. The subsequent missions, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were a combination of an orbiter and a lander and became the first extraterrestrial landings (other than the Moon).

They were successfully launched in mid-May 1971 and flew from Earth to Mars for seven months. On November 27, the Mars-2 lander made an emergency landing due to an onboard computer failure and became the first man-made object to reach the surface of the Red Planet. On December 2, Mars 3 made a routine landing, but its transmission was interrupted after 14.5 seconds of broadcast.

Meanwhile, NASA continued the Mariner program, and Probes 8 and 9 were launched in 1971. Mariner 8 crashed into the Atlantic Ocean during launch. But the second spacecraft not only reached Mars, but also became the first to be successfully launched into its orbit. While the planet-scale dust storm lasted, the satellite managed to take several photographs of Phobos. As the storm subsided, the probe captured images that provided more detailed evidence that water once flowed on the surface of Mars. A feature called the Snows of Olympus (one of the few objects that remained visible during the planetary dust storm) was determined to also be the tallest feature in the solar system, leading to its renaming as Mount Olympus.

In 1973, the Soviet Union sent four more probes: the 4th and 5th Mars orbiters, and the orbiters and landers Mars 6 and 7. All interplanetary stations except Mars 7 transmitted data , and the Mars-5 expedition turned out to be the most successful. Before the transmitter housing depressurized, the station managed to transmit 60 images.

By 1975, NASA had launched Viking 1 and 2, consisting of two orbiters and two landers. The mission to Mars was aimed at searching for traces of life and observing its meteorological, seismic and magnetic characteristics. Results from biological experiments aboard the Viking landers were inconclusive, but a reanalysis of the data published in 2012 suggested evidence of microbial life on the planet.

Orbiters have provided additional evidence that water once existed on Mars - large floods created deep canyons thousands of kilometers long. Additionally, areas of braided streams in the southern hemisphere suggest that precipitation once occurred there.

Resumption of flights

The fourth planet from the sun was not explored until the 1990s, when NASA sent the Mars Pathfinder mission, which consisted of a spacecraft that landed a station with the traveling Sojourner probe. The device landed on Mars on July 4, 1987 and became proof of the viability of technologies that would be used in future expeditions, such as air-cushion landing and automatic obstacle avoidance.

The next mission to Mars, the MGS mapping satellite, reached the planet on September 12, 1997, and began operations in March 1999. Over the course of one full Martian year, from a low altitude in almost polar orbit, it studied the entire surface and atmosphere and sent back more data about the planet than all previous missions combined.

On November 5, 2006, MGS lost contact with Earth and NASA's efforts to restore it were terminated on January 28, 2007.

In 2001, the Mars Odyssey Orbiter was sent to find out what Mars is. Its goal was to search for evidence of water and volcanic activity on the planet using spectrometers and thermal imagers. In 2002, it was announced that the probe had detected large quantities of hydrogen - evidence of the existence of huge deposits of ice in the top three meters of soil within 60° of the south pole.

On June 2, 2003, Mars Express was launched, a spacecraft consisting of a satellite and the Beagle 2 lander. It entered orbit on December 25, 2003, and the probe entered the planet's atmosphere on the same day. Before ESA lost contact with the lander, Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of ice and carbon dioxide at the south pole.

In 2003, NASA began exploring the planet under the MER program. It used two rovers, Spirit and Opportunity. The mission to Mars had the task of examining various rocks and soils in order to find evidence of the presence of water.

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) was launched on 08/12/05 and reached the planet's orbit on 03/10/06. The spacecraft carries scientific instruments designed to detect water, ice and minerals on and below the surface. In addition, MRO will support future generations of space probes by daily monitoring Mars' weather and surface conditions, searching for future landing sites, and testing a new telecommunications system that will speed up communications with Earth.

On August 6, 2012, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory MSL and the Curiosity rover landed in Gale Crater. With their help, many discoveries were made regarding local atmospheric and surface conditions, and organic particles were also discovered.

On November 18, 2013, in another attempt to find out what Mars is, the MAVEN satellite was launched, the purpose of which is to study the atmosphere and relay signals from robotic rovers.

Research continues

The fourth planet from the Sun is the most studied in the solar system after Earth. Currently, the Opportunity and Curiosity stations operate on its surface, and 5 spacecraft operate in orbit - Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, MRO, MOM and Maven.

These probes were able to transmit incredibly detailed images of the Red Planet. They helped discover that there was once water there, and confirmed that Mars and Earth are very similar - they have polar caps, seasons, an atmosphere and the presence of water. They also showed that organic life can exist today and most likely existed in the past.

Humanity's obsession with discovering what Mars is continues unabated, and our efforts to study its surface and unravel its history are far from over. In the coming decades, we will likely continue to send rovers there and will send a man there for the first time. And over time, given the availability of the necessary resources, the fourth planet from the Sun will one day become habitable.

The surface of Mars is a subject of interest to many scientists, astronomers and ordinary people not related to research. The public's interest is understandable, since Mars is one of the closest neighbors of the Earth, the 4th planet from the Sun. The age-old question: “Is there life on Mars?” is still relevant, research on the surface and atmosphere of the planet continues. The mysterious planet hides a lot on its surface interesting facts about the surface of Mars, accessible to human understanding.

1. According to studies of soil and the number of craters, the age of the planet’s surface reaches 4 billion years. Moreover, the southern hemisphere formed earlier than the northern, as evidenced by the different nature of the soil.
2. Mars is a planet like Earth. The solid surface is constantly changing under the influence of factors such as contact with cosmic bodies, movement of the earth's crust, dust storms and volcanic eruptions.
3. There is no area of ​​the stratosphere most enriched in ozone. There is no ozone layer on the planet, which allows large doses of radiation to penetrate when the sun rises.
4. The unusual coloring of the planet is given by iron oxides, which are present in large quantities in the soil..
5. The surface of the planet consists of dark and light areas, which are called seas and continents, respectively. Despite constant exposure to dust storms, the dark spots remain unchanged. Their character is being studied, the opinions of scientists are divided. Some believe that the dark color corresponds to the presence of dense vegetation, others are of the opinion that the color of the spot depends on the nature of the relief and the degree of dust deposition.
6. Different surface in the southern and northern hemisphere. The southern part is located above average, and resembles the relief of the Moon due to the frequent occurrence of craters. The northern hemisphere is flat, with sparse depressions. The smooth nature of the surface could have been formed due to the destruction of the soil by water and wind. Some scientists explain such a different asymmetrical relief of the hemispheres by the convergence of lithospheric plates, like what happened with Pangea. Another version suggests a collision of Mars with a body whose dimensions are similar to the size of Pluto.
7. There are a wide variety of craters on the surface of Mars, differing in size and shape.. Some depressions are characteristic only of Mars. Craters with a shaft are a consequence of the flow of liquid masses, and elevated depressions appeared in places protected from the action of winds.

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8. There are 2 areas on the planet where volcanoes are located. Tharsis and Elysium are the areas where the most active processes were observed.
9. The surface of the planet contains the Valles Marineris canyon, larger in size than the American Grand Canyon, and Mount Olympus. The mountain is larger than Everest and is the highest mountain in the solar system.

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10. The surface of Mars contains evidence that in ancient times the territory was dotted with rivers. Evidence is provided by dry riverbeds, the appearance of stones, and the presence of special rocks that are formed only under the influence of water.
11. The surface of the planet hides water resources that increase over time. Scientists have discovered a flow of thermal particles that may indicate that there is water in the ground.
12. On the territory of Mars there is a substance consisting of dust and ice, dating back several million years. Ice substances retain their original appearance without melting under the influence of ultraviolet rays. The number of such structures increases every year. Scientists studied the composition of the new substance and gave it the name dry ice.
13. The composition of the planet's soil is close to that of Earth's soil.. Scientists have conducted a number of studies, as a result of which it was found that, from a theoretical point of view, it is possible to grow plants on Mars. However, not only soil influences the growth process of living organisms. The predominantly cold climate, frequent sandstorms, and other negative aspects prevent favorable cultivation.
14. On the Tharsis Hill there are specific wells with a depth of about 200 m. Experts believe that the occurrence of depressions is associated with the action of volcanoes.
15. The composition of the atmosphere and other unfavorable components allow us to judge that today life on the Red Planet is excluded from the perspective that is familiar to society. The scientists’ tasks include studying the planet’s capabilities for normal life support in the future, as well as studying the past of Mars.

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Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the last of the terrestrial planets. Like the rest of the planets in the solar system (not counting Earth), it is named after the mythological figure - the Roman god of war. In addition to its official name, Mars is sometimes called the Red Planet, due to the brownish-red color of its surface. With all this, Mars is the second smallest planet in the solar system after.

For almost the entire nineteenth century, it was believed that life existed on Mars. The reason for this belief is partly error and partly human imagination. In 1877, astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli was able to observe what he thought were straight lines on the surface of Mars. Like other astronomers, when he noticed these stripes, he assumed that such directness was associated with the existence of intelligent life on the planet. A popular theory at the time about the nature of these lines was that they were irrigation canals. However, with the development of more powerful telescopes in the early twentieth century, astronomers were able to see the Martian surface more clearly and determine that these straight lines were just an optical illusion. As a result, all earlier assumptions about life on Mars remained without evidence.

Much of the science fiction written during the twentieth century was a direct consequence of the belief that life existed on Mars. From small green men to towering invaders with laser weapons, Martians have been the focus of many television and radio programs, comic books, films and novels.

Despite the fact that the discovery of Martian life in the eighteenth century ultimately turned out to be false, Mars remained for scientific circles the most life-friendly planet (not counting Earth) in the solar system. Subsequent planetary missions were undoubtedly dedicated to the search for at least some form of life on Mars. Thus, a mission called Viking, carried out in the 1970s, conducted experiments on Martian soil in the hope of finding microorganisms in it. At that time, it was believed that the formation of compounds during experiments could be the result of biological agents, but it was later discovered that compounds of chemical elements could be created without biological processes.

However, even these data did not deprive scientists of hope. Having found no signs of life on the surface of Mars, they suggested that all the necessary conditions could exist below the surface of the planet. This version is still relevant today. At the very least, planetary missions of the present such as ExoMars and Mars Science involve testing all possible options for the existence of life on Mars in the past or present, on the surface and below it.

Atmosphere of Mars

The composition of the atmosphere of Mars is very similar to that of Mars, one of the least hospitable atmospheres in the entire solar system. The main component in both environments is carbon dioxide (95% for Mars, 97% for Venus), but there is a big difference - there is no greenhouse effect on Mars, so the temperature on the planet does not exceed 20°C, in contrast to 480°C on the surface of Venus . This huge difference is due to the different densities of the atmospheres of these planets. With comparable densities, Venus's atmosphere is extremely thick, while Mars has a rather thin atmosphere. Simply put, if the atmosphere of Mars were thicker, it would resemble Venus.

In addition, Mars has a very rarefied atmosphere - atmospheric pressure is only about 1% of the pressure on Earth. This is equivalent to a pressure of 35 kilometers above the Earth's surface.

One of the earliest directions in the study of the Martian atmosphere is its influence on the presence of water on the surface. Despite the fact that the polar caps contain solid water and the air contains water vapor resulting from frost and low pressure, all research today indicates that the “weak” atmosphere of Mars does not support the existence of liquid water on the surface planets.

However, based on the latest data from Mars missions, scientists are confident that liquid water exists on Mars and is located one meter below the surface of the planet.

Water on Mars: speculation / wikipedia.org

However, despite the thin atmospheric layer, Mars has weather conditions that are quite acceptable by terrestrial standards. The most extreme forms of this weather are winds, dust storms, frost and fog. As a result of such weather activity, significant signs of erosion have been observed in some areas of the Red Planet.

Another interesting point about the Martian atmosphere is that, according to several modern scientific studies, in the distant past it was dense enough for the existence of oceans of liquid water on the surface of the planet. However, according to the same studies, the atmosphere of Mars has been dramatically changed. The leading version of such a change at the moment is the hypothesis of a collision of the planet with another fairly voluminous cosmic body, which led to Mars losing most of its atmosphere.

The surface of Mars has two significant features, which, by an interesting coincidence, are associated with differences in the planet's hemispheres. The fact is that the northern hemisphere has a fairly smooth topography and only a few craters, while the southern hemisphere is literally dotted with hills and craters of different sizes. In addition to topographical differences, which indicate differences in the relief of the hemispheres, there are also geological ones - studies indicate that areas in the northern hemisphere are much more active than in the southern.

On the surface of Mars is the largest known volcano, Olympus Mons, and the largest known canyon, Mariner. Nothing more grandiose has yet been found in the Solar System. The height of Mount Olympus is 25 kilometers (that's three times higher than Everest, the tallest mountain on Earth), and the diameter of the base is 600 kilometers. The length of the Valles Marineris is 4000 kilometers, the width is 200 kilometers, and the depth is almost 7 kilometers.

The most significant discovery about the Martian surface to date has been the discovery of canals. The peculiarity of these channels is that, according to NASA experts, they were created by flowing water, and thus are the most reliable evidence of the theory that in the distant past the surface of Mars was significantly similar to the earth's.

The most famous peridolium associated with the surface of the Red Planet is the so-called “Face on Mars”. The terrain actually closely resembled a human face when the first image of the area was taken by the Viking I spacecraft in 1976. Many people at the time considered this image to be real proof that intelligent life existed on Mars. Subsequent photographs showed that this was just a trick of lighting and human imagination.

Like other terrestrial planets, the interior of Mars has three layers: crust, mantle and core.
Although precise measurements have not yet been made, scientists have made certain predictions about the thickness of the crust of Mars based on data on the depth of Valles Marineris. The deep, extensive valley system located in the southern hemisphere could not exist unless the crust of Mars was significantly thicker than that of Earth. Preliminary estimates indicate that the thickness of Mars' crust in the northern hemisphere is about 35 kilometers and about 80 kilometers in the southern hemisphere.

Quite a lot of research has been devoted to the core of Mars, in particular to determining whether it is solid or liquid. Some theories have pointed to the absence of a strong enough magnetic field as a sign of a solid core. However, in the last decade, the hypothesis that the core of Mars is at least partially liquid has gained increasing popularity. This was indicated by the discovery of magnetized rocks on the planet's surface, which may be a sign that Mars has or had a liquid core.

Orbit and rotation

The orbit of Mars is remarkable for three reasons. Firstly, its eccentricity is the second largest among all the planets, only Mercury has less. With such an elliptical orbit, Mars' perihelion is 2.07 x 108 kilometers, which is much further than its aphelion of 2.49 x 108 kilometers.

Secondly, scientific evidence suggests that such a high degree of eccentricity was not always present, and may have been less than Earth's at some point in the history of Mars. Scientists say the reason for this change is the gravitational forces of neighboring planets acting on Mars.

Thirdly, of all the terrestrial planets, Mars is the only one on which the year lasts longer than on Earth. This is naturally related to its orbital distance from the Sun. One Martian year is equal to almost 686 Earth days. A Martian day lasts approximately 24 hours and 40 minutes, which is the time it takes for the planet to complete one full revolution around its axis.

Another notable similarity between the planet and Earth is its axial tilt, which is approximately 25°. This feature indicates that the seasons on the Red Planet follow each other in exactly the same way as on Earth. However, the hemispheres of Mars experience completely different temperature regimes for each season, different from those on Earth. This is again due to the much greater eccentricity of the planet’s orbit.

SpaceX And ​​plans to colonize Mars

So we know that SpaceX wants to send people to Mars in 2024, but their first Mars mission will be the Red Dragon capsule in 2018. What steps is the company going to take to achieve this goal?

• 2018 Launch of the Red Dragon space probe to demonstrate technology. The goal of the mission is to reach Mars and do some survey work at the landing site on a small scale. Perhaps supplying additional information to NASA or space agencies of other countries.
• 2020 Launch of the Mars Colonial Transporter MCT1 spacecraft (unmanned). The purpose of the mission is to send cargo and return samples. Large-scale demonstrations of technology for habitat, life support, and energy.
• 2022 Launch of the Mars Colonial Transporter MCT2 spacecraft (unmanned). Second iteration of MCT. At this time, MCT1 will be on its way back to Earth, carrying Martian samples. MCT2 is supplying equipment for the first manned flight. MCT2 will be ready for launch once the crew arrives on the Red Planet in 2 years. In case of trouble (as in the movie “The Martian”) the team will be able to use it to leave the planet.
• 2024 Third iteration of Mars Colonial Transporter MCT3 and first manned flight. At that point, all technologies will have proven their functionality, MCT1 will have traveled to Mars and back, and MCT2 will be ready and tested on Mars.

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the last of the terrestrial planets. The distance from the Sun is about 227940000 kilometers.

The planet is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. To the ancient Greeks he was known as Ares. It is believed that Mars received this association due to the blood-red color of the planet. Thanks to its color, the planet was also known to other ancient cultures. Early Chinese astronomers called Mars the “Star of Fire,” and ancient Egyptian priests referred to it as “Ee Desher,” meaning “red.”

The land masses on Mars and Earth are very similar. Despite the fact that Mars occupies only 15% of the volume and 10% of the mass of the Earth, it has a comparable land mass to our planet as a consequence of the fact that water covers about 70% of the Earth's surface. At the same time, the surface gravity of Mars is about 37% of the gravity on Earth. This means that you could theoretically jump three times higher on Mars than on Earth.

Only 16 of 39 missions to Mars were successful. Since the Mars 1960A mission launched by the USSR in 1960, a total of 39 landers and rovers have been sent to Mars, but only 16 of these missions have been successful. In 2016, a probe was launched as part of the Russian-European ExoMars mission, the main goals of which will be to search for signs of life on Mars, study the surface and topography of the planet, and map potential environmental hazards for future manned missions to Mars.

Debris from Mars has been found on Earth. It is believed that traces of some of the Martian atmosphere were found in meteorites that bounced off the planet. After leaving Mars, these meteorites for a long time, for millions of years, flew around the solar system among other objects and space debris, but were captured by the gravity of our planet, fell into its atmosphere and crashed to the surface. The study of these materials allowed scientists to learn a lot about Mars even before space flights began.

In the recent past, people were sure that Mars was home to intelligent life. This was largely influenced by the discovery of straight lines and grooves on the surface of the Red Planet by Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli. He believed that such straight lines could not be created by nature and were the result of intelligent activity. However, it was later proven that this was nothing more than an optical illusion.

The highest planetary mountain known in the solar system is on Mars. It is called Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus) and rises 21 kilometers in height. It is believed that this is a volcano that was formed billions of years ago. Scientists have found quite a lot of evidence that the age of the object's volcanic lava is quite young, which may be evidence that Olympus may still be active. However, there is a mountain in the solar system to which Olympus is inferior in height - this is the central peak of Rheasilvia, located on the asteroid Vesta, whose height is 22 kilometers.

Dust storms occur on Mars - the most extensive in the solar system. This is due to the elliptical shape of the planet's orbit around the Sun. The orbital path is more elongated than many other planets and this oval orbital shape results in ferocious dust storms that cover the entire planet and can last for many months.

The Sun appears to be about half its visual Earth size when viewed from Mars. When Mars is closest to the Sun in its orbit, and its southern hemisphere faces the Sun, the planet experiences a very short but incredibly hot summer. At the same time, a short but cold winter sets in in the northern hemisphere. When the planet is farther from the Sun, and the northern hemisphere points towards it, Mars experiences a long and mild summer. In the southern hemisphere, a long winter sets in.

With the exception of Earth, scientists consider Mars the most suitable planet for life. Leading space agencies are planning a series of space missions over the next decade to find out whether there is potential for life on Mars and whether it is possible to build a colony on it.

Martians and aliens from Mars have been the leading candidates for extraterrestrials for quite a long time, making Mars one of the most popular planets in the solar system.

Mars is the only planet in the system, other than Earth, that has polar ice. Solid water has been discovered beneath the polar caps of Mars.

Just like on Earth, Mars has seasons, but they last twice as long. This is because Mars is tilted on its axis at about 25.19 degrees, which is close to Earth's axial tilt (22.5 degrees).

Mars has no magnetic field. Some scientists believe that it existed on the planet about 4 billion years ago.

The two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, were described in the book Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. This was 151 years before they were discovered.

Since Mars is further from the Sun than the Earth, it can occupy a position in the sky opposite to the Sun, then it is visible all night. This position of the planet is called confrontation. For Mars, it repeats every two years and two months. Since the orbit of Mars is more elongated than the Earth’s, during oppositions the distances between Mars and the Earth can be different. Once every 15 or 17 years, the Great Confrontation occurs, when the distance between Earth and Mars is minimal and amounts to 55 million km.

Canals on Mars

The photograph of Mars taken from the Hubble Space Telescope clearly shows the planet's characteristic features. Against the red background of the Martian deserts, the bluish-green seas and the bright white polar cap are clearly visible. Famous channels not visible in the photo. At this magnification they are really invisible. After large-scale photographs of Mars were obtained, the mystery of the Martian canals was finally resolved: the canals are an optical illusion.

Of great interest was the question of the possibility of existence life on Mars. Studies carried out in 1976 on the American Viking MS apparently gave a final negative result. No traces of life have been found on Mars.

However, there is currently a lively discussion on this issue. Both sides, both supporters and opponents of life on Mars, present arguments that their opponents cannot refute. There is simply not enough experimental data to resolve this issue. We can only wait until the ongoing and planned flights to Mars will provide material confirming or refuting the existence of life on Mars in our time or in the distant past. Material from the site

Mars has two small satellite— Phobos (Fig. 51) and Deimos (Fig. 52). Their dimensions are 18×22 and 10×16 km, respectively. Phobos is located at a distance of only 6000 km from the surface of the planet and orbits it in about 7 hours, which is 3 times less than a Martian day. Deimos is located at a distance of 20,000 km.

There are a number of mysteries associated with satellites. So, their origin is unclear. Most scientists believe that these are relatively recently captured asteroids. It is difficult to imagine how Phobos survived the impact of a meteorite, which left a crater with a diameter of 8 km. It is not clear why Phobos is the blackest body known to us. Its reflectivity is 3 times less than soot. Unfortunately, several spacecraft flights to Phobos ended in failure. The final solution to many issues of both Phobos and Mars is postponed until the expedition to Mars, planned for the 30s of the 21st century.